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Non-international armed conflict between Myanmar and Arakan Army (AA)

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Non-international armed conflict between Myanmar and Arakan Army (AA)

By eugenie

Background

The AA was founded in April 2009 in Kachin state on the border of Myanmar and China.1 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023. Initially, the establishment of AA was supported by the KIA and the two groups often fought alongside each other until the AA refocused its attention on Rakhine state (formerly Arakan state).2 P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025; See ‘Breaking Away: The Battle for Myanmar’s Rakhine State’, International Crisis Group, 27 August 2024. The AA fosters the political goal of creating an ‘Arakan Nation’ through the ‘way of Rakhita’ – an ideology encapsulating the national liberation struggle of the people of Arakan and the restoration of the sovereignty of Arakan.3 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023. The AA aims to represent all people living in Rakhine state, which is different from other EAGs that view the struggle explicitly as nationalists, basing the fight exclusively on ethnic lines.4 P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025.

The AA has engaged in a NIAC with the Tatmadaw since 2009.5 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023. The intensity of the conflict peaked between 2018 and 12 November 2020, when a ceasefire agreement was reached.6 S. Strangio, ‘Ceasefire Raises Hopes of Elections in Myanmar’s Rakhine State’, The Diplomat, 7 December 2020. Fighting between the Tatmadaw and the AA reignited on 5 July 2022 and intensified in August 2022, ending the existing ceasefire.7 ‘Six AA Fighters Killed as Myanmar Regime Bombs Outpost in Karen State’, The Irrawaddy, 5 July 2022. Another humanitarian ceasefire agreement was reached on 2 November 2022.8 ‘Breaking Away: The Battle for Myanmar’s Rakhine State’, International Crisis Group, 27 August 2024; ‘Informal ceasefire with Myanmar military ‘not permanent’ solution, Arakan Army says’, Myanmar Now, 28 November 2022. Fighting resumed again in 2023 with Operation 1027 (see above).9 United League of Arakan/Arakha Army – ULA/AA’, Myanmar Peace Monitor, 9 September 2024.

Intensity

The Myanmar Peace Monitor has documented a total of 452 armed clashes between the AA and Tatmadaw in the period between January 2020 and June 2024.

The Tatmadaw has, on various occasions, employed heavy weaponry as well as other military tactics such as drone strikes and other forms of aerial strikes against the AA.10 United League of Arakan/Arakha Army – ULA/AA’, Myanmar Peace Monitor, 9 September 2024. The AA’s communications and military tactics are sophisticated. This prompted the NLD to make an unparalleled demand to all mobile service providers in 2019 to prevent internet services in nine townships with a high AA presence, leading to the world’s longest internet blackout, lasting one and half years.11 S. Long, ‘Rakhine: a precarious ceasefire hangs in the balance’, International Institute for Strategic Studies, 26 July 2022. In clashes with the Tatmadaw, the AA has captured sophisticated heavy military weapons including tank destroyers and 105mm M101 howitzers.12 War Noir, X, 27 December 2024. The AA retains consolidated control over mainland Rakhine,13 M. Martin, ‘Arakan Army Posed to “Liberate” Myanmar’s Rakhine State’, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 20 February 2025. and, at the time of reporting, had captured and maintained control of multiple Tatmadaw bases along the borders of Rakhine, Magway, Bago, and Ayeyarwady.14 P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025. As of June 2025, the AA continued to put pressure on the regime in the capital of Rakhine state, Sittwe, as well as in the neighbouring regions.15 Asia-Pacific: Myanmar’, International Crisis Group. Notably, an intense clash on 11 June between the AA and the military in Pyaing Say Kay village, Kyaukpyu township, killed a large number of soldiers.16 Asia-Pacific: Myanmar’, International Crisis Group.

In March 2025, OCHA reported the resumption of the conflict in Rakhine between the AA and Tatmadaw.17 ‘Myanmar Humanitarian Update No. 45’, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 28 March 2025. On various occasions, the United Nations has expressed concern over this situation. On 28 February 2025, the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Volker Türk, expressed his ‘deep concern’ over the escalation of violence in the region.18 ‘UN rights chief concerned over escalating violence in Myanmar’s Rakhine’, Kuwait News Agency, 28 February 2025. Clearly, the conflict situation satisfies the notion of protracted armed violence.

Organization

The AA has a sophisticated command structure. The AA has a political and a military wing, the latter reportedly having between 15,00019 P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025. and 30,000 fighters.20 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023; B. Lintner, ‘Rebel yell: Arakan Army leader speaks to Asia Times’, Asia Times, 18 January 2022. Twan Mrat Naing is the founder and Commander-in-Chief of the AA military wing.21 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023; B. Lintner, ‘Rebel yell: Arakan Army leader speaks to Asia Times’, Asia Times, 18 January 2022; P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025. Brigadier-General Nyo Twan Awng is the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the United League of Arakan, which is the political wing of the movement, and the Vice Commander-in Chief of the AA.22 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023. The leadership of the AA is described as ‘young’, ‘educated’, and able to evolve.23 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023. It also incorporates the experiences of an older generation of the Rakhine revolutionary movement.24 United League of Arakan/ Arakha Army – ULA/AA’, Myanmar Peace Monitor, 9 September 2024.

The military wing of the AA is structured in nine military regional commands to achieve greater coordination and efficiency in executing operations against the Tatmadaw. These military regional commands are directed by colonels and lieutenant-colonels and are supervised by a war office at a secret location, where Twan Mrat Naing and his deputy, Brigadier-General Dr Nyo Twan Aung, are assisted by a group of senior officers.25 R. Bhattacharyya, ‘5 Factors That Catapulted Arakan Army to Unprecedented Success Against the Myanmar Military’, The Diplomat, 28 December 2024. This sophisticated command structure allows for the structured training of fighters belonging to the AA and thus the AA possesses the ability to comply with IHL.

There is strict military discipline in the regional command divisions.26 R. Bhattacharyya, ‘5 Factors That Catapulted Arakan Army to Unprecedented Success Against the Myanmar Military’, The Diplomat, 28 December 2024. Supplementary to internal disciplinary measures in place, the political wing, the United League of Arakan, has created an administrative and justice system27 ‘Breaking Away: The Battle for Myanmar’s Rakhine State’, International Crisis Group, 27 August 2024. which supports people in Rakhine state who report criminal incidents.28 ‘The Arakan Army’s Journey: From Rebels to Rulers and A New Arakan Paradigm’, Centre for Arakan Studies, 2 July 2024.

The AA employs a mix of guerilla warfare and conventional assaults in its approach to operations against the Tatmadaw.29 ‘The Arakan Army’s Journey: From Rebels to Rulers and A New Arakan Paradigm’, Centre for Arakan Studies, 2 July 2024; J. P. Leider, ‘The Arakan Army, Rakhine State and the Promise of Arakan’s Independence’, Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher Policy Brief Series 128, 2022.

The AA’s strategic military tactics have been successful and enable it to control trade routes along the Myanmar-Bangladesh border, cutting off key supply lines for the Tatmadaw.30 P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025. Tactics the AA employs include building and fostering alliances with other EAGs in the region through, e.g. the Northern Alliance, the Federal Political Negotiation and Coordination Committee,31 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023; ‘The Arakan Army’s Journey: From Rebels to Rulers and A New Arakan Paradigm’, Centre for Arakan Studies, 2 July 2024. and the 3BHA.32 ‘Breaking Away: The Battle for Myanmar’s Rakhine State’, International Crisis Group, 27 August 2024. The AA’s military tactics are considered so successful that it often provides training to resistance forces as well as technical advice to its allies.33 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023.

The AA is successful in its recruiting initiatives34 P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025. and has not engaged in forced recruitment practices.35 R. Bhattacharyya, ‘5 Factors That Catapulted Arakan Army to Unprecedented Success Against the Myanmar Military’, The Diplomat, 28 December 2024. The AA benefits from a reliance on its allies to source small arms and procure larger equipment, such as artillery and armoured vehicles through their successful clashes with the Tatmadaw.36 P. Pearson, ‘Arakan Army’, Modern Insurgent, 10 April 2025. The UWSA is an important logistical partner of the AA and often provides it with arms and other military equipment.37 S. Ramachandran, ‘The Arakan Army and Tatmadaw’s Tenuous Truces in Myanmar’s Rakhine State’, The Jamestown Foundation, 16 December 2022; ‘The rapid rise of the Arakan Army’, Mizzima, 21 July 2022.

The AA is sophisticated in its approach to communication with the outside world. The AA has an official spokesperson who is, at the time of reporting, Khaing Thu Kha.38 K. Hsan Hlaing, ‘Understanding the Arakan Army’, Stimson, 21 April 2023; ‘The Arakan Army’s Journey: From Rebels to Rulers and A New Arakan Paradigm’, Centre for Arakan Studies, 2 July 2024. Furthermore, the AA has its own website where it posts press releases.39 ‘ULA/AA Press-Briefing’, Arakan Army.

As of the end of June 2025, the AA was sufficiently organized to constitute an organized armed group under IHL.