Non-international armed conflict between Colombia and the Estado Mayor Central (EMC)

22 July 2026

Background

The pre-existing¹ NIAC between Colombia and the EMC continued during the reporting period.² The EMC is the largest dissident group of the former FARC-EP and self-identifies as its successor.³ It was founded in mid-2017 after the group rejected the peace negotiations accepted by the parent and now defunct FARC-EP group in 2016.⁴ At that time, Néstor Gregorio Vera Fernández, also known as ‘Iván Mordisco’, opted not to take part in the negotiations, instead holding on to his command of around 400 members of the former FARC-EP and maintaining control of drug trafficking routes in several south-eastern Colombian regions.⁵ In 2022, the EMC entered into peace negotiations with the government following Gustavo Petro’s inauguration as president, but the negotiation process was marked by significant challenges.⁶ In late 2023, the Colombian National Army advanced in the Cauca region, a stronghold of the EMC, which caused rifts within the criminal group.⁷ The group then broke up. The faction under Ivan Mordisco after the split then disengaged from peace talks with the government while the other faction of the EMC (the EMBF) continued negotiations with the government.⁸ Repeated efforts by the Colombian Government to achieve a peace deal with the EMC have not been successful.⁹ Clashes between the two parties were particularly frequent in the departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca.¹⁰

Intensity

The Colombian National Army and EMC continued to clash frequently throughout the reporting period.¹¹ Multiple violent engagements were reported during July 2023,¹² September 2023,¹³ January,¹⁴ May,¹⁵ June,¹⁶ August,¹⁷ October,¹⁸ and November 2024,¹⁹ and March,²⁰ April,²¹ May,²² and June 2025.²³

Violence escalated during April 2024, just one week after the EMC once again withdrew from peace negotiations.²⁴ The Colombian National Army and Air Force launched a military operation against the EMC in El Plateado, a rural area of Argelia in the southern department of Cauca. The Colombian National Army used heavy artillery, including howitzers and long-range mortars, killing at least fifteen fighters and injuring at least twelve others.²⁵ Another significant attack and counter operation occurred between the two parties on 12 October 2024.²⁶ The EMC launched a drone attack killing at least seventeen civilians.²⁷ In response, President Petro ordered an aerial campaign,²⁸ as part of ‘Operation Perseus’ in an attempt to regain control over El Plateado, an EMC stronghold in the municipality of Argelia.²⁹ Several Colombian National Army divisions were also involved, along with the National Police and special forces units.³⁰ The frequency and nature of military operations launched by the EMC clearly show that this group plans its military operations. Such planned attacks meet the requirement under Article (1)1 of Additional Protocol II that attacks are to be concerted in nature.³¹

It is difficult to determine the death toll as neither the EMC nor the media reported the losses incurred by the EMC in the majority of the clashes that took place. The media did, however, frequently report on the death of soldiers involved in these clashes. For example, the July 2023 attacks resulted in the death of at least five Colombian soldiers and between one and seven dissident fighters.³² At least five soldiers died and six others were injured during the operations against the EMC in September 2023.³³ Attacks during April 2024 killed another soldier and left three injured,³⁴ while clashes in May 2024 reportedly killed at least nine soldiers.³⁵ Another three soldiers were killed during June 2024.³⁶ Another soldier was killed in November.³⁷ On 11 March 2025, the EMC used a remotely detonated bomb against a vehicle transporting soldiers in Balboa municipality, killing five soldiers and leaving another sixteen wounded.³⁸ During April 2025, six soldiers were killed.³⁹

Internal displacement figures from territories where the EMC fought the Colombian National Army remain high.⁴⁰ The EMC, however, does not fight only against the Colombian National Army, and other organized armed groups also engage in combat in some of these territories. As such, it is impossible to attribute a percentage of internally displaced persons directly to the fighting between the EMC and the Colombian National Army.

The Colombian Air Force increasingly employed aerial strikes against the EMC during the reporting period.⁴¹ In response, the EMC has acquired drone technology, using remotely piloted aircraft in several attacks, dropping explosive devices, including grenades, on its military targets.⁴² The EMC has also used explosives called ‘tatucos’ against the Colombian National Army.⁴³ Tatucos are improvised explosives that need to be activated from a ramp and are often cylinder or car bombs that require remote or timed ignition.⁴⁴

The nature of the military opposition posed by the EMC enabled by territory under its control has led the Colombian National Army to increasingly deploy soldiers in areas controlled by the EMC. For example, the deployment of special forces and at least 1,000 other soldiers in October 2024,⁴⁵ and the deployment of 400 more soldiers in March 2025 in the districts of Huisitó, Playa Rica, Juntas, Fondas, and Pandiguando, in the municipality of El Tambo, Cauca.⁴⁶

It is clear that the notion of intensity demanded under IHL is met in the armed violence between Colombian National Army and the EMC. The frequency, high intensity, and planned nature of the attacks initiated by the EMC illustrates the ability of the EMC to launch sustained and concerted military operations from territory under its control as required by Article 1(1) of Additional Protocol II to trigger its application.⁴⁷

Organization

The EMC has a decentralized structure to its leadership with commanders in charge of different factions that fight in certain geographic areas. Individual commanders exercise control over the Jorge Suárez Briceño Bloc, Commander Gentil Duarte bloc, the Magdalena Medio Bloc, and the Carolina Ramírez Front.⁴⁸ In April 2024, the EMC fractured, with 60 per cent of the fighters remaining with the original group under the command of Iván Mordisco.The remaining 40 per cent are now led by Alexander Díaz Mendoza, alias ‘Calarcá’, and carry out activities under the name of EMBF.⁴⁹ After the EMC disengaged from peace talks with the government in April 2024 following their split from EMBF, it internally restructured, and several of its blocs – the Western Bloc, the Amazonas Bloc, the Isais Pardo Bloc and the Eastern Joint Command – were brought under the command of different leaders.⁵⁰

As well as a decentralized command structure for various geographically dispersed battalions, the EMC has a secretariat and a central command which oversees the battalions.⁵¹ Other reports, however, suggest that Iván Mordisco has absolute control over the EMC and that the command is not effectively decentralized.⁵²

The group has rules that inform its disciplinary system. The EMC imposes a strict code of conduct and exercises social control in the communities under its influence and prohibits crimes such as rape and robbery. Its command structure permits the existence of internal disciplinary systems in each of the decentralised regional command units and this practice further facilitates a capacity to implement IHL.⁵³ EMC fighters receive intensive military training,⁵⁴ which facilitates their training in IHL. EMC recruits learn, among other skills, how to handle explosive-laden drones.⁵⁵ The EMC’s sophisticated leadership structure is akin to responsible command which in turn enables the EMC to have the ability to implement Additional Protocol II.

It is a part of the military tactics of the EMC to form alliances to execute military operations. The practice is not without a challenge in that the EMC battalions in various regions may be fighting an armed group which is part of an alliance elsewhere.⁵⁶ The EMC controls several militarily important corridors as well as territory in several municipalities and along the Venezuelan border, all of which enhances its logistical capacity.⁵⁷ It funds its military activities using some of the profits from its criminal activities which include drug trafficking, illegal gold mining, extortion, kidnappings, contraband and money laundering.⁵⁸

Often, forced recruitment is employed to ensure full strength in the ranks of the military wing. The EMC also recruits children.⁵⁹ Figures provided by the Colombian Ministry of Defense suggest that EMC membership is growing, its ranks growing from 3,545 in 2022 to 3,860 in the first half of 2023.⁶⁰ Reports suggest that as of December 2024, the group had 6,000 fighters in its military wing.⁶¹

The EMC speaks with one voice through Andrey Avendaño (an alias) who, at the time of reporting, was the group’s spokesperson and chief negotiator.⁶²

Territorial control is an organizational criterion under Article 1(1) of Additional Protocol II.⁶³ The EMC has its stronghold in the Amazon region, including in the departments of Guaviare, Meta, Caquetá, Vaupés and Guainía.⁶⁴ The EMC controls areas which are key access points to the Colombian Massif such as the areas of El Boquerón, Mata de Puro, Lerma and La Parada.⁶⁵ The EMC’s territorial control in certain territories extends to traditional governmental functions such as the building and maintenance of clinics, roads and bridges.⁶⁶ The EMC expanded its territorial control during the reporting period to include eight new municipalities in the Colombian Massif which includes parts of Bolívar, Sucre, Almaguer, La Vega, Rosas, La Sierra, San Sebastián and Santa Rosa, all in the department of Cauca.⁶⁷

The organizational structure of the EMC is sophisticated and complies with the four organizational requirements under Article 1(1) of Additional Protocol II. Hence, the NIAC between Colombian National Army and the EMC constitutes an Additional Protocol II-type NIAC.

1
‘Humanitarian Report 2024: Colombia’, International Committee of the Red Cross; ‘Humanitarian Challenges 2025: Colombia’, International Committee of the Red Cross.
2
‘Iván Mordisco, el líder de las disidencias de las FARC que vuelve al ruedo en Colombia’, Sputnik: Mundo, 23 May 2023.
3
M. Pérez Gallardo, ‘El Gobierno colombiano lanza la ‘Operación Perseo’ contra disidentes de las FARC’, France 24, 13 October 2024.
4
K. Johnson, ‘¿Cómo funciona internamente la disidencia del Estado Mayor Central de las FARC?’, Fundación conflict responses, 5 June 2023; C. Cohecha, ‘Colombia, EMC armed group begin peace process, suspend offensive actions’, Reuters, 9 October 2023.
5
J. Sampier, M. R. Tortosa and E. Breyne, ‘Mapping and Profiling the Most Threatening Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean’, El Paccto, 2025; ‘Central General Staff – Ex-FARC Mafia’, InSight Crime, 14 June 2024.
6
J. Sampier, M. R. Tortosa and E. Breyne, ‘Mapping and Profiling the Most Threatening Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean’, El Paccto, 2025; H. Shuldiner and S. Saffon, ‘From Total to Partial Peace: Colombia’s Talks With Crime Groups Fragment’, InSight Crime, 3 May 2024.
7
J. Sampier, M. R. Tortosa and E. Breyne, ‘Mapping and Profiling the Most Threatening Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean’, El Paccto, 2025; H. Shuldiner and S. Saffon, ‘From Total to Partial Peace: Colombia’s Talks With Crime Groups Fragment’, InSight Crime, 3 May 2024; O. M. López, ‘Comandante del Ejército ratificó operaciones contra disidencias hasta llegar a El Plateado en Argelia, Cauca’, Infobae, 29 August 2023.
8
J. Sampier, M. R. Tortosa and E. Breyne, ‘Mapping and Profiling the Most Threatening Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean’, El Paccto, 2025; H. Shuldiner and S. Saffon, ‘From Total to Partial Peace: Colombia’s Talks With Crime Groups Fragment’, InSight Crime, 3 May 2024.
9
C. Cohecha, ‘Colombia, EMC armed group begin peace process, suspend offensive actions’, Reuters, 9 October 2023; M. Pérez Gallardo, ‘El Gobierno colombiano lanza la ‘Operación Perseo’ contra disidentes de las FARC’, France 24, 13 October 2024; ‘Gobierno de Colombia suspende cese al fuego con una parte del EMC’, Voice of America, 16 July 2024; R. Cué Barberena, ‘El Gobierno colombiano finaliza tregua con el EMC, aunque la mantiene con algunas facciones’, France 24, 17 July 2024.
10
‘Un disidente de las FARC muere en un enfrentamiento con el Ejército en Colombia’, Swiss Info, 24 June 2024; F. Agudelo, ‘Así fue como el frente Carlos Patiño de las disidencias de las Farc ejecutó el ataque en contra de tropas del Ejército en Balboa, Cauca’, Infobae, 15 March 2025; ‘Diez disidentes de las Farc murieron en el Cauca: cuidaban la “retaguardia” de la estructura Carlos Patiño’, Semana, 5 March 2025; V. Parada Lugo, ‘La Defensoría del Pueblo confirma la liberación de los 29 integrantes de la Fuerza Pública retenidos en El Plateado’, El Pais, 9 March 2025; J. Ríos Monroy, ‘El Plateado: así opera por dentro la disidencia de FARC que Petro ordenó destruir’, El Espectador, 13 March 2025; ‘Siete muertos en múltiples ataques con disparos y explosivos de guerrilleros en Colombia’, RFI, 10 June 2025 (Updated 11 June 2025).
11
‘Colombia anuncia inicio de negociaciones de paz con disidentes de FARC’, Swiss info, 13 March 2023.
12
M. A. Rodríguez Forero, ‘Dos militares y un disidente de las Farc murieron en combates en Caquetá’, RCN Radio, 16 July 2023; S. Olivares Tobón, ‘Tres soldados murieron en combates contra estructuras criminales en Caquetá y Bolívar’, El Combiano, 16 July 2023; J. C. Rodríguez Parrado, ‘Combates entre Ejército Nacional y disidencias de las Farc en Caquetá dejan dos militares muertos’, Infobae, 16 July 2023; G. Bajonero Vásquez, ‘Fuerte enfrentamiento entre el Ejército y disidencias Farc en Antioquia’, El Tiempo, 18 July 2023.
13
‘Latin America & Caribbean’, International Crisis Group; S. Rodríguez Rey, ‘Disidencias de las Farc asesinó a un teniente y tres soldados en Nariño’, Infobae, 16 September 2023; R. Irausquin, ‘Disidentes de FARC matan a cuatro soldados colombianos en vísperas de reunión con gobierno’, Extra, 17 September 2023; ‘Un militar muerto, seis heridos y uno desaparecido deja un combate con disidentes de las FARC’, Ecuavisa, 29 September 2023.
14
A. L. Méndez, ‘FF.MM. afirman que fueron atacados por las disidencias: dos soldados murieron’, El Tiempo, 29 January 2024; S. Rairán, ‘Dos soldados muertos dejaron combates entre disidencias de las Farc y el Ejército en Nariño’, Infobae, 29 January 2024, April 2024, ‘Colombia: 15 disidentes de las FARC mueren en “la mayor acción” de la ofensiva contra el EMC’, France 24, 26 April 2024; ‘Un soldado muerto y tres heridos tras enfrentamientos en El Plateado, Cauca’, Cambio, 17 April 2024; F. M. Guitérrez, ‘Murió un soldado tras enfrentamiento entre el Ejército y disidencias de las Farc en Cauca’, Radio Nacional de Colombia, 17 April 2024.
15
‘El Ejército colombiano denuncia que disidencia de FARC profanó cuerpos de soldados muertos’, Swiss info, 6 May 2024; H. Shuldiner and S. Garcia, ‘High-Level Attack Punctuates Security Crisis in Southwestern Colombia’, InSight Crime, 16 June 2024; J. C. Rodríguez Parrado, ‘Dos soldados fueron asesinados por las disidencias de las Farc en zona rural de Silvia, Cauca’, Infobae, 6 May 2024; ‘Control del cañón del Micay enfrenta de nuevo a Ejército con disidencia de Mordisco en Cauca’, El Espectador, 6 May 2024.
16
H. Shuldiner and S. Garcia, ‘High-Level Attack Punctuates Security Crisis in Southwestern Colombia’, InSight Crime, 16 June 2024; ‘Ataque con drones en El Plateado, Cauca, dejó dos personas heridas y tres viviendas destruidas’, Noticias RCN, 17 June 2024; M. F. Arocha and J. Coenen, ‘Regional Overview: Latin America and the Caribbean: June 2024’, ACLED, 8 July 2024; L. Muñoz Medina, ‘Atacan con drones a militares en Argelia, Cauca: hay varios heridos’, Infobae, 12 June 2024; ‘Un disidente de las FARC muere en un enfrentamiento con el Ejército en Colombia’, Swiss info, 24 June 2024.
17
N. R. Matta Colorado, ‘Un presunto disidente de las Farc murió y tres quedaron heridos en combate en Cauca’, El Colombiano, 8 August 2024; ‘Disidencias de las Farc de Mordisco se metieron a un colegio en el Huila mientras los alumnos recibían clases violando en DIH. Huían del Ejército’, Semana, 15 August 2024.
18
M. Grautoff, ‘Operación Perseo: Éxito militar y fracaso del Gobierno’, LR, 18 October 2024; ‘Fuerzas Militares lanzan Operación Perseo para recuperar El Plateado – Cauca’, Defensa, 12 October 2024; D. E. Reyes Espinosa, ‘Disidencias de ‘Iván Mordisco’ se refirieron por primera vez a la Operación Perseo en el cañón del Micay: “Es el resultado del envenenamiento de la cúpula militar”’, Infobae, 31 October 2024.
19
J. E. Neira, ‘Ejército dio de baja a 10 disidentes de las Farc en el Meta que pretendían enfrentarse a ‘Calarcá’’, Infobae, 9 November 2024; M. F. Arocha, et al, ‘Regional Overview: Latin America and the Caribbean: November 2024’, ACLED, 9 December 2024; ‘Un combate entre el Ejército colombiano y disidentes de las FARC deja un muerto y tres heridos en el Valle del Cauca’, El Debate, 24 November 2024.
20
‘Diez disidentes de las Farc murieron en el Cauca: cuidaban la “retaguardia” de la estructura Carlos Patiño’, Semana, 5 March 2025; J. Ríos Monroy, ‘El Plateado: así opera por dentro la disidencia de FARC que Petro ordenó destruir’, El Espectador, 13 March 2025; F. Agudelo, ‘Así fue como el frente Carlos Patiño de las disidencias de las Farc ejecutó el ataque en contra de tropas del Ejército en Balboa, Cauca’, Infobae, 15 March 2025.
21
‘Latin America & Caribbean’, International Crisis Group; L. C. Fuentes, ‘Regional Overview: Latin America and the Caribbean: April 2025’, ACLED, 3 April 2025; ‘Muere el jefe de una disidencia de las FARC en enfrentamientos con el Ejército en Colombia’, Swiss info, 9 April 2025; ‘Mueren seis militares colombianos en un ataque de la facción del EMC de las FARC en el sudeste de Colombia’, Infobae, 27 April 2025.
22
‘«Triste muerte para un colombiano»: Petro lamentó baja de guerrillero en combates en el Meta’, Vive el Meta, 17 May 2025; N. R. Matta Colorado, ‘Murió “Gato Feo”, el azote de bases militares en Meta’, El Colombiano, 15 May 2025; M. F. Tarazona Martínez, ‘Petro afirma que “Iván Mordisco cayó herido en combate y por días estuvo herido en la selva”’, La FM, 31 May 2025; ‘Cuatro militares colombianos resultan heridos por ataque con drones de disidentes de FARC’, Swiss Info, 24 May 2025.
23
A. Alsema, ‘At least three killed in wave of bomb attacks in southwest Colombia’, Colombia Reports, 10 June 2025; ‘At least 7 killed in explosions and attacks outside police stations in southwest Colombia’, AP News, 11 June 2025; ‘At least seven dead and 50 wounded as Colombia hit with bombings and gun attacks’, The Guardian, 10 June 2025; K. Johnson, ‘Ataques en Cauca y Valle: ¿otra ronda de lo mismo’, Razon Publica, 15 June 2025;‘Siete muertos en múltiples ataques con disparos y explosivos de guerrilleros en Colombia’, RFI, 10 June 2025 (Updated 11 June 2025); ‘Latin America & Caribbean’, International Crisis Group.
24
‘Colombia: abatidos 15 guerrilleros de las disidencias FARC’, DW, 25 April 2024; Ejército Nacional de Colombia, X, 25 April 2025.
25
L. Muñoz Medina, ‘Golpe contundente contra disidencias de las Farc en Argelia, Cauca: 15 subversivos fueron neutralizados’, Infobae, 25 April 2024; L. Reynoso, ‘“Si es guerra, es guerra”: 15 muertos del Estado Mayor Central por un ataque con artillería del Ejército’, El Pais, 26 April 2024;‘Colombia: 15 disidentes de las FARC mueren en “la mayor acción” de la ofensiva contra el EMC’, France 24, 26 April 2024; ‘Duro golpe al Estado Mayor Central en el Cauca: Ejército dio de baja a 15 disidentes en El Plateado’, El Colombiano, 25 April 2024.
26
‘Petro ordenó bombardear a disidentes de las FARC tras ataque con drones’, Cooperativa, 12 October 2024.
27
‘[ATTACK] FARC Dissidents Escalate Drone Attacks in Colombia’, Modern insurgent, 20 April 2025; M. Pérez Gallardo, ‘El Gobierno colombiano lanza la ‘Operación Perseo’ contra disidentes de las FARC’, France 24, 13 October 2024.
28
Gustavo Petro, X, 12 October 2024.
29
‘Petro ordenó bombardear a disidentes de las FARC tras ataque con drones’, Cooperativa, 12 October 2024.
30
‘Fuerzas Militares lanzan Operación Perseo para recuperar El Plateado – Cauca’, Comando general: Fuerza militares de Colombia, 12 October 2024.
31
A. Bellal and S. Casey-Maslen, ‘The Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions in Context’, Oxford University Press, 2022, para1.40.
32
S. Olivares Tobón, ‘Tres soldados murieron en combates contra estructuras criminales en Caquetá y Bolívar’, El Combiano, 16 July 2023; C. Salazar, ‘Denuncian combates entre disidencias Farc en Putumayo: encontraron ocho cuerpos’, Infobae, 18 July 2023; G. Bajonero Vásquez, ‘Fuerte enfrentamiento entre el Ejército y disidencias Farc en Antioquia’, El Tiempo, 18 July 2023.
33
S. Rodríguez Rey, ‘Disidencias de las Farc asesinó a un teniente y tres soldados en Nariño’, Infobae, 16 September 2023; R. Irausquin, ‘Disidentes de FARC matan a cuatro soldados colombianos en vísperas de reunión con gobierno’, Extra, 17 September 2023; ‘Un militar muerto, seis heridos y uno desaparecido deja un combate con disidentes de las FARC’, Ecuavisa, 29 September 2023.
34
F. M. Guitérrez, ‘Murió un soldado tras enfrentamiento entre el Ejército y disidencias de las Farc en Cauca’, Radio Nacional de Colombia, 17 April 2024; J. D. Rodríguez, ‘Combates entre Ejército y disidencias Farc en Cauca: un militar asesinado y tres heridos’, W Radio, 17 April 2024.
35
‘Control del cañón del Micay enfrenta de nuevo a Ejército con disidencia de Mordisco en Cauca’, El Espectador, 6 May 2024; ‘Dos soldados colombianos mueren en un ataque de disidentes de las FARC en el Cauca’, Swiss Info, 7 May 2024; J. C. Rodríguez Parrado, ‘Dos soldados fueron asesinados por las disidencias de las Farc en zona rural de Silvia, Cauca’, Infobae, 6 May 2024; ‘El Ejército colombiano denuncia que disidencia de FARC profanó cuerpos de soldados muertos’, Swiss Info, 6 May 2024; P. C. B., ‘Gustavo Petro, tras la muerte de cuatro soldados: “La ofensiva contra el EMC en el Cauca debe ser total”’, El Pais, 7 May 2024.
36
L. Muñoz Medina, ‘Atacan con drones a militares en Argelia, Cauca: hay varios heridos’, Infobae, 12 June 2024; ‘El Ejército colombiano denuncia que disidencia de FARC profanó cuerpos de soldados muertos’, Swiss info, 6 May 2024; P. C. B., ‘Gustavo Petro, tras la muerte de cuatro soldados: “La ofensiva contra el EMC en el Cauca debe ser total”’, El Pais, 7 May 2024.
37
J. E. Neira, ‘Ejército dio de baja a 10 disidentes de las Farc en el Meta que pretendían enfrentarse a ‘Calarcá’’, Infobae, 9 November 2024.
38
J. D. Rodríguez, ‘5 militares muertos y 16 más heridos, 3 de gravedad, deja atentado en Balboa (Cauca)’, Infobae, 12 March 2025; F. Agudelo, ‘Así fue como el frente Carlos Patiño de las disidencias de las Farc ejecutó el ataque en contra de tropas del Ejército en Balboa, Cauca’, Infobae, 15 March 2025; ‘Latin America & Caribbean’, International Crisis Group.
39
‘Mueren seis militares colombianos en un ataque de la facción del EMC de las FARC en el sudeste de Colombia’, Infobae, 27 April 2025; ‘Seis militares mueren en una emboscada en Colombia’, DW, 28 April 2025.
40
‘Colombia: Population Movement (internal displacement) – DREF Operation update (MDRCO029)’, Reliefweb, 21 July 2025; ‘Humanitarian Challenges 2025: Colombia’, International Committee of the Red Cross; ‘ACAPS Thematic Report: Colombia – Anticipated implications of US stop-work orders and subsequent cuts (16 April 2025)’, Reliefweb, 16 April 2025.
41
‘Ejército Nacional refuerza operaciones en Huisitó, Cauca, con más de 400 soldados’, Defensa, 25 March 2025; L. Muñoz Medina, ‘Golpe contundente contra disidencias de las Farc en Argelia, Cauca: 15 subversivos fueron neutralizados’, Infobae, 25 April 2024; J. Ownby, ‘Drones que lanzan bombas: la nueva etapa del conflicto colombiano’, El Pais, 19 June 2024.
42
H. Shuldiner and S. Garcia, ‘High-Level Attack Punctuates Security Crisis in Southwestern Colombia’, InSight Crime, 16 June 2024; L. Muñoz Medina, ‘Atacan con drones a militares en Argelia, Cauca: hay varios heridos’, Infobae, 12 June 2024; J. Ownby, ‘Drones que lanzan bombas: la nueva etapa del conflicto colombiano’, El Pais, 19 June 2024; J. Bernal, ‘Sigue la violencia en el Cauca: este lunes se reportan fuertes combates entre Ejército y Disidencias en Argelia’, Infobae, 17 June 2024.
43
J. C. Rodríguez Parrado, ‘Dos soldados fueron asesinados por las disidencias de las Farc en zona rural de Silvia, Cauca’, Infobae, 6 May 2024.
44
‘The constant danger of explosive hazards’, International Committee of the Red Cross, 27 March 2025.
45
‘Fuerzas Militares lanzan Operación Perseo para recuperar El Plateado – Cauca’, Defensa, 12 October 2024; D. E. Reyes Espinosa, ‘Disidencias de ‘Iván Mordisco’ se refirieron por primera vez a la Operación Perseo en el cañón del Micay: “Es el resultado del envenenamiento de la cúpula militar”’, Infobae, 31 October 2024; V. P. Lugo, ‘La Defensoría del Pueblo confirma la liberación de los 29 integrantes de la Fuerza Pública retenidos en El Plateado’, El Pais, 9 March 2025.
46
‘Ejército Nacional refuerza operaciones en Huisitó, Cauca, con más de 400 soldados’, Defensa, 25 March 2025.
47
‘Article 1 – Material field of application’, International Committee of the Red Cross: International Humanitarian Law Databases; M. M. Bradley, ‘Additional Protocol II: Elevating the minimum threshold of intensity?’, International Review of the Red Cross, 2020; A. Bellal and S. Casey-Maslen, ‘The Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions in Context’, Oxford University Press, 2022, para1.40.
48
‘¿En que está el “EMC” actualmente?’, Fundación conflict responses, 25 April 2024; H. Shuldiner and S. Saffon, ‘From Total to Partial Peace: Colombia’s Talks With Crime Groups Fragment’, InSight Crime, 3 May 2024; J. P. Contreras Ríos, ‘Así nació el grupo que se separó de Mordisco y que ahora negocia la paz con’, El Espectador, 4 December 2024.
49
J. Sampier, M. R. Tortosa and E. Breyne, ‘Mapping and Profiling the Most Threatening Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean’, El Paccto, 2025.
50
‘¿En que está el “EMC” actualmente?’, Fundación conflict responses, 25 April 2024; ‘Mordisco está fuera de la mesa de diálogos, confirma jefe negociador del Gobierno’, El Espectador, 16 April 2024; S. Vanegas, ‘Cuánto poder tiene en Colombia el Estado Mayor Central, la disidencia de las FARC contra la que Petro declaró una “ofensiva total”’, BBC News Mundo, 23 May 2024.
51
K. Johnson, ‘¿Cómo funciona internamente la disidencia del Estado Mayor Central de las FARC?’, El Espectador, 5 June 2023; ‘Disidencias de las FARC-EP: dos caminos de una guerra en construcción – Partes 1 y 2’, Fundación Conflict Responses, 1 March 2024.
52
H. Shuldiner and S. Saffon, ‘From Total to Partial Peace: Colombia’s Talks With Crime Groups Fragment’, InSight Crime, 3 May 2024.
53
J. Sampier, M. R. Tortosa and E. Breyne, ‘Mapping and Profiling the Most Threatening Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean’, El Paccto, 2025; A. P. R, et al, ‘El Proyecto “Estado Mayor Central”: Un intento de unificación disidente’, Ideaspaz, October 2023.
54
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55
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56
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57
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58
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61
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63
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65
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