Since State collapse in 1991, Somalia has experienced protracted violence, with Islamist armed groups seizing key areas in the mid-2000s and prompting regional and international interventions. A federal government recognized in 2012 continues to confront Al-Shabaab in a long-running non-international armed conflict (NIAC), and, since late 2024, also a NIAC with Islamic State in Somalia (ISS). ISS has used drones on a limited scale, while its clashes with Al Shabaab remain below the threshold of a separate NIAC. Somalia’s forces are supported by the African Union Support and Stabilization Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM), which replaced the African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS), as well as by the United States (US), Ethiopia, Türkiye and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A separate confrontation in the Sool, Sanaag, and Cayn (SSC) regions between Somaliland and Dhulbahante militias has subsided but sporadic clashes continue after Somaliland’s withdrawal and following SSC Khaatumo’s recognition as a federal member state.
Classifications and Parties to the Conflicts
- Non-International Armed Conflict between Somalia (and support forces) and Al-Shabaab
- Non-International Armed Conflict between Somalia (and support forces) and Islamic State in Somalia (ISS)
During the period, civilian harm in Somalia remained pervasive, with major attacks by Al-Shabaab and ISS and continued use of improvised explosive devices and, increasingly, armed drones, all of which caused deaths and injuries and damaged essential services. Humanitarian workers, schools, and health facilities were regularly targeted or otherwise affected, disrupting care for displaced populations. State forces, Al-Shabaab, ISS, clan militias, and ATMIS peacekeepers committed a range of serious violations against persons in their power. Recorded violations included arbitrary and summary killings, executions following unfair trial, recruitment and use of children, and pervasive conflict-related sexual violence. Persons with disabilities faced heightened exposure to harm and systematic barriers to assistance, education, and livelihoods in a context of protracted conflict and insecurity.
Historical Background
Origins
State collapse in 1991 precipitated prolonged power struggles. Despite a 2004 transitional government, Islamist armed groups seized Mogadishu and other areas in 2006, prompting Ethiopian, African Union (AU), and UN interventions. A federal government was internationally recognized in 2012, yet Al-Shabaab retains significant capacity and cross-border reach.
Parties and external support
Somali State forces, supported by African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS) (succeeded by African Union Support and Stabilization Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM) in December 2024), the United States (US), Ethiopia, Türkiye, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), confront Al-Shabaab. Türkiye has trained large contingents since 2017 and reinforced its presence in 2025. The UAE provides training and operational support.
Current armed conflicts
The NIAC between Somalia (and support forces) and Al-Shabaab persists, characterized by sustained operations and territorial contests. As of December 2024, Somali forces also engaged Islamic State in Somalia (ISS) in a distinct NIAC.
Somaliland and SSC-Khaatumo
A separate confrontation in the Sool, Sanaag, and Cayn (SSC) regions began in January 2023 between Somaliland and Dhulbahante clan militias, subsiding after Somaliland’s withdrawal and the SSC-Khaatumo administration’s creation. Sporadic clashes continued. In May 2025, the National Consultative Conference agreed to recognize SSC-Khaatumo as a federal member state, without Puntland and Jubaland participating.
Humanitarian situation
Civilians continue to face high casualties, displacement, food insecurity, and attacks on aid operations, reflecting the protracted nature of violence nationwide.
Key Developments (2023–2025)
The reporting period saw several major developments:
- New non-international armed conflict between Somalia and Islamic State in Somalia (ISS): confrontations escalated from sporadic to sustained in late 2024, with Somali security forces mounting coordinated operations in Puntland that reversed ISS footholds. ISS introduced limited drone use in early 2025 but subsequently ceded ground as security forces pressed into remaining valleys, with armed violence amounting to a NIAC.
- Below the threshold clashes between ISS and Al-Shabaab: clashes between Al-Shabaab and ISS remained episodic and localized, involved light weaponry, and produced relatively few casualties. Exchanges primarily sought materiel and micro-terrain advantages in Bari, without the sustained intensity necessary to constitute a separate NIAC between the two groups.
- The United States in an invited and supporting role: at Somalia’s request, US forces provided air support, training, and infrastructure assistance. This external support, given Somali consent, does not alter the legal characterization of Somalia’s NIACs against Al-Shabaab and ISS.
- African Union Support and Stabilisation Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM) replaces African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS): African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS) drew down in late 2024 and was succeeded by African Union Support and Stabilisation Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM) on 1 January 2025. Transition frictions – funding gaps and troop-contributor uncertainty – limited operational change despite the formal handover.
- Ankara Declaration of 11 December 2024: Somalia and Ethiopia reaffirmed security cooperation, with subsequent confirmation of Ethiopian participation under the new AUSSOM and agreement on troop numbers in early 2025.
- Kenyan Special Forces border patrol impacted by USAID freeze: Persistent Al-Shabaab spillover coincided with funding shortfalls from USAID that curtailed Kenya’s border security programme, constraining patrols along the north-eastern frontier.
Non-International Armed Conflicts
Somalia vs Al-Shabaab
Somalia vs Islamic State Somalia
Parties to the Conflicts and Other Main Actors
State Party
- Somalia
- United States of America (US)
- African Union Support and Stabilisation Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM) (Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda)
- Ethiopia
- Kenya
Non-State Parties
- Al-Shabaab
- Islamic State in Somalia (ISS)
Foreign Involvement
- Türkiye
- United Arab Emirates (UAE)
ATTACKS ON CIVILIANS
In 2024, civilian harm remained widespread, with major attacks resulting in numerous deaths and injuries. Violence against civilians continued into 2025, with reports of child casualties at the hands of Islamic State in Somalia (ISS). Use of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) by Al-Shabaab remained prevalent. The use of armed drones also resulted in civilian casualties. Attacks on humanitarian workers increased, with abductions, carjackings, and explosives, often attributed to Al-Shabaab, while counterterrorism laws were said to be obstructing the delivery of aid.
Civilian harm remained pervasive in 2024 despite a decline from the previous year. Individual attacks produced mass casualties, including an Al-Shabaab suicide bombing followed by armed assault at Mogadishu’s Lido Beach on 2 August 2024 that killed dozens and injured hundreds. ISS used violence to extort income, targeting pastoralists and businesses, and deadly clashes occurred when communities resisted.
ATTACKS ON CIVILIAN INFRASTRUCTURE
Both Al-Shabaab and ISS have regularly attacked schools and health facilities.
Schools were repeatedly targeted. In 2024, verified reports recorded thirty-six attacks on schools, the majority attributed to Al-Shabaab and most of the remainder to clan militias. Under customary IHL, attacks may be directed only at military objectives and never at civilian objects. Parties must also take special care to avoid damage to buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or education, unless those facilities qualify as military objectives.
VIOLATIONS AGAINST PERSONS IN THE HANDS OF THE ENEMY
Serious violations against persons in the hands of the enemy persisted. State security forces and Al-Shabaab committed unlawful killings, and extrajudicial killings by African Union Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS) peacekeepers were reported. Authorities executed individuals for offences committed when children in violation of international law, while Al-Shabaab carried out summary executions following rulings by its own courts without fair trial guarantees. Recruitment and use of children by Al-Shabaab continued, with isolated cases involving the Somali National Army. Conflict-related sexual violence was pervasive, including forced marriage and rapes of women and girls, with most incidents attributed to Al-Shabaab. Persons with disabilities faced heightened risks and barriers to assistance, with women and internally displaced persons particularly affected.
Murder of Civilians
Violence against civilians intensified across Somalia’s armed conflicts during the period. The Government of Somalia or its agents reportedly perpetrated arbitrary or unlawful killings. Al-Shabaab carried out targeted killings of civilians. Extrajudicial killings of civilians by African Union Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS) peacekeepers were also recorded.
Summary or Arbitrary Executions
During the period, Federal and Puntland authorities in Somalia carried out executions for alleged offences committed by children while associated with Al-Shabaab, breaching the prohibition on imposing the death penalty for crimes committed under eighteen, a customary rule reflected in Additional Protocol II of 1977. Al-Shabaab conducted summary executions of alleged collaborators in Galgaduud after rulings by its self-proclaimed courts, without fair-trial guarantees, which are war crimes. Additional concerns in Somalia included terrorism offences attracting the death penalty even absent intentional killing and the use of military courts lacking adequate independence and safeguards.