Armed conflicts in Iraq

Use of anti-personnel mines

Landmines and other explosive remnants of war in Iraq, especially in areas formerly controlled by Islamic State, pose a serious and ongoing threat to civilians. In addition to the general rules on the conduct of hostilities, the 1996 Amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons applies to the conduct of Islamic State in its armed conflict against Iraq. Mines that are not directed at specific military objectives violate the principle of distinction, and when laid in areas populated or frequently accessed by civilians, they often have indiscriminate effects. Without feasible precautions to limit civilian harm, their use may also violate the principle of precautions in attack. Continuing deaths and injuries, restricted movement and services, and disrupted agricultural and pastoral livelihoods due to explosive devices were reported, with children often among the victims and the impact most acute in previously contested areas. In addition to the obligation not to use anti-personnel mines itself, Iraq is obligated by the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention to clear and destroy all anti-personnel mines on its territory as soon as possible.

Serious concerns arose over conflict-related displacement of Kurdish communities in Iraq as a result of Turkish military operations, although displacement is only allowed for the security of civilians or for imperative military reasons and must be temporary. Operations in affected regions, amplified by destruction of homes and agricultural land and by obstruction and intimidation that hinder returns, appear to have displaced many hundreds of civilians. The pattern supports a finding of forced displacement and a serious violation by Türkiye. Besides, the failure by Iraqi authorities to investigate such incidents raises concerns under its duties to ensure respect for IHL and investigate alleged war crimes committed on its territory. Additional concerns involve Iraqi security forces restricting Kurdish farmers’ access to land despite a land restitution law. Finally, displaced persons have a right to voluntary and safe return, yet many Iraqis remain displaced in camps (either in Iraq or in Syria), facing barriers to documentation, livelihoods, and social acceptance, with climate extremes and funding shortfalls worsening living conditions.

Attacks against Objects Indispensable to the Survival of the Civilian Population

Türkiye’s continued air and ground campaign against the PKK in northern Iraq has devastated agricultural and grazing lands that sustain local livelihoods. Extensive farmland, forests and orchards have been burned, with repeated bombardments reported in areas such as Duhok. Residents describe a shift from self-reliance in farming and livestock to dependence on government aid and unstable seasonal work, while living under constant air activity and bombardment. The widespread destruction of fields and trees has also driven displacement, leaving civilians unable to return to villages where cultivation is no longer viable.

During the reporting period, persistent allegations pointed to attacks leading to the destruction of objects of cultural and spiritual significance to minority groups in Iraq, particularly Kurdish communities. These incidents appeared to be tied to Türkiye’s broader effort to neutralize PKK operations in the region’s tunnel network. However, no evidence indicates that the cultural sites contributed to PKK military activities or were about to do so, and therefore that they qualified as military objectives. Absent such evidence, attacking cultural property violates the principle of distinction and the special protection that IHL affords to cultural property.

Allegations of torture, extortion, forced confessions and collective punishment, including against women and children, by Iraqi security forces persisted, raising serious concerns about compliance with the absolute prohibition on torture and other forms of ill treatment. Conditions of detention of those accused of affiliation with Islamic State continue to raise significant concerns under the prohibition of inhuman and degrading treatment. Prisons were severely overcrowded and many detainees lacked adequate food, water, sanitation and medical care.

Arbitrary deprivation of liberty remained widespread. Many people were arrested for alleged affiliation with Islamic State, often without sufficient evidence or through guilt by association, and held for prolonged periods without due process. Fair trial guarantees were routinely undermined and coerced confessions used to secure convictions. Islamic State also abducted civilians during the reporting period, including in rural areas.

Women and children continue to face limited protection from, and accountability for, earlier conflict-related sexual violence. Reintegration of those perceived as tied to Islamic State is hindered by cultural and societal norms, stigma and fear. Yazidi women and girls with children born of rape, as well as their children, are particularly vulnerable, often ostracized and without a secure future. The government has shown little appetite to address these issues. Child marriage, frequently portrayed as a way out of poverty, heightens risks of abuse and health harms and curtails education and employment. Conflict-related incidents are prosecuted under anti-terrorism legislation that does not recognize sexual violence as terrorism, creating accountability gaps, and a 2025 amnesty law reportedly harmed those fragments of the Iraqi population (including women and girls) that had been targeted by Islamic State.

Disability in Iraq is expected to be extremely high after decades of conflict. The widespread use of anti-personnel mines, including improvised devices, has caused thousands of traumatic lower limb amputations, leaving people with disabilities (especially in central and northern regions) facing a difficult future. Iraq reports tens of thousands of mine victims and runs rehabilitation centres in several governorates, with international assistance. Thousands benefited from care at internationally supported centres.

The discovery and continued presence of mass graves across Iraq were confirmed during the reporting period, with recent estimates indicating they may contain up to 400,000 victims. Many sites appear linked to earlier armed conflicts and serious violations of IHL. Under IHL, Iraq is obliged to investigate and prosecute conducts that may amount to war crimes.