Haiti

There was one non-international armed conflict (NIAC) ongoing in Haiti during the reporting period – Haiti v Viv Ansanm.

Common Article 3 to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, the Additional Protocol II of 1977, and customary international humanitarian law (IHL) apply to this conflict.

In 1791, enslaved people in the French colony of Saint-Domingue rose up against colonial rule in what would become the Haitian Revolution.¹. Black revolutionaries organized, fought, and governed, challenging the core contradiction of Atlantic liberalism: the proclamation of universal rights in Paris and Philadelphia alongside the preservation of racial slavery and colonial extraction.² Under the military and political leadership of Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who served as Louverture’s lieutenant, the revolutionary forces defeated French, Spanish, and British attempts to suppress the rebellion.³ Louverture was captured by French forces in 1802 and died in captivity in France on April 7, 1803.⁴ Dessalines continued the struggle and declared Haiti’s independence on January 1, 1804, establishing the first Black republic in the modern world.⁵ The newly independent republic was subjected to a trade boycott and a demand for compensation by the Napoleonic Empire in France. Haiti had been the wealthiest French colony in the West Indies but was isolated in its post-colonial circumstances.⁶ Haiti paid eighty per cent of its annual income over 122 years in compensation to French former plantation owners.⁷ In the 200 years following independence, Haiti has suffered more than thirty coups d’état and coup attempts,⁸ numerous foreign interventions,⁹ and the dictatorial rule of François Duvalier from 1957 to 1986, who was succeeded by his son, Jean-Claude Duvalier.¹⁰

In 1990, under international pressure, and following widespread protests, Haiti held elections that were judged fair, free, and democratic and were won by Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide.¹¹ A year later, Aristide was forcibly removed from office and expelled from the country following a military coup in September 1991.¹² A 1994 military intervention led by the United States (US), ‘Operation Restore Democracy’, which was supported by the United Nations (UN), returned Aristide to power until 1996.¹³ René Préval then held office as president for four years until 2000,¹⁴ after which Aristide was re-elected.¹⁵ Former Duvalier supporters organized widespread resistance to his authority.¹⁶ Aristide demanded that reparations be paid by France while US officials denounced his administration’s involvement in drug trafficking.¹⁷ In February 2004, President Aristide was forced to resign after rebel forces established control over large parts of the country.¹⁸ The United States aided Aristide’s flight from Haiti, which he later called a kidnapping;¹⁹ an allegation rejected by the United States.²⁰ In the aftermath, a UN peacekeeping mission, the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), was deployed to Haiti to restore security.²¹

In addition to the political instability, Haiti has, since 2004, been struck by a series of devastating natural disasters.²² In September 2004, the full force of tropical storm Jeanne hit the country leading to severe flooding that claimed at least 2,000 lives.²³ In 2008, three severe hurricanes killed about 800 people in Haiti and further worsened the situation.²⁴ In 2010, the country was hit by a devastating 7.0 magnitude earthquake which left approximately 220,000 people dead, 300,000 injured, and 1.5 million homeless.²⁵

In 2011, Michel Martelly, a popular Haitian musician, was elected president.²⁶ His election was reportedly enabled by US support, although the US government has denied this.²⁷ Martelly’s popularity fell after he failed to create progress in reconstructing Haiti after the 2010 earthquake. There were reports of corruption, and presidential elections were postponed twice, which led to the president governing by decree for more than a year.²⁸ Widespread protests escalated after the dissolution of the parliament in January 2015.²⁹ Presidential elections were held in November 2015 with Jovenel Moïse emerging as the winner.³⁰ A new wave of violence following the announcement of the election results led to the annulment of the results.³¹ Only in February 2017 was Moïse officially sworn in as president.³²

Jovenel Moïse’s assassination in July 2021, reportedly by a group of foreign mercenaries, marked the beginning of the spiralling gang violence which continues in Haiti today.³³ For several years, the capital, Port-au-Prince, and several rural towns and villages have been, in large part, controlled by armed gangs.³⁴ The civilian population is frequently the target of the violence.³⁵ Haiti is the most poverty-stricken nation in the western hemisphere with more than half of the population living below the poverty line.³⁶ According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, at the end of 2024, about one million people were internally displaced.³⁷

Deployment of Kenyan-led Multinational Security Support (MSS) mission and extension of United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti

On 29 July 2023, Kenya declared, pending UN approval, that it was prepared to head a multinational security force by contributing 1,000 police officers to support the Haitian National Police (PNH).³⁸ On 7 July 2023, Heads of State of Members of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) had stressed the importance of establishing a “humanitarian and security stabilization corridor” under the mandate of a UN Security Council resolution.³⁹ The UN Integrated Office in Haiti (BINUH), established by Security Council Resolution 2476 on 25 June 2019, had previously been deployed by the UN as a special political mission.⁴⁰ On 14 July 2023, the Security Council extended BINUH’s mandate for a year.⁴¹

The leader of the G9 gang coalition (a federation of 9 criminal gangs based in Port-au-Prince),⁴² Jimmy Chérizier (aka ‘Barbecue’), threatened violence if the multinational force were to commit atrocities in poor neighbourhoods.⁴³ Human Rights Watch called for safeguards to prevent abuse, citing a history of misconduct by external missions to Haiti.⁴⁴ Kenya agreed to lead the new security force on 25 August 2023.⁴⁵ On 2 October 2023, the UN Security Council authorized a one-year Multinational Security Support (MSS) mission to Haiti, whose deployment was to be reviewed after nine months.⁴⁶ The force had the task of assisting the Haitian police by planning and conducting joint operations to restore security and to create conditions conducive to free and fair elections.⁴⁷

On 9 October, the Kenyan High Court blocked the deployment of Kenyan forces under opposition pressure.⁴⁸The Kenyan parliament approved the deployment of 1,000 police officers to Haiti on 16 November 2023, but the High Court extended its order blocking the deployment until late January 2024 pending a ruling on the case.⁴⁹ On 26 January 2024, Kenya’s High Court prohibited deployment of police officers to Haiti and ruled the National Security Council lacked authority to order the deployment of police officers outside Kenya’s borders.⁵⁰ Nevertheless, on 30 January 2024, Kenyan President William Ruto said the mission could begin ‘as soon as next week’.⁵¹ On 12 March 2024, the Kenyan government paused the plan to deploy police officers citing a change in the situation on the ground.⁵² On 25 April 2024, following the installation of the Transitional Presidential Council (TPC) in Haiti (see below), the plan was reinstated.⁵³

On 25 June 2024, the first contingent of 200 Kenyan police officers arrived; a second contingent followed on 16 July 2024.⁵⁴ Although the deployment did not trigger a major gang offensive as had been feared, violence persisted in several areas.⁵⁵ Haiti’s then prime minister, Garry Conille, announced a state of emergency in fourteen communes controlled by gangs in the Ouest and Artibonite departments on 17 July 2024.⁵⁶ The mission faced various challenges including limited resources, inconsistent funding, and the need for reinforcement.⁵⁷ On 30 September 2024, the UN Security Council approved a one-year renewal of the mission.⁵⁸ According to media reports, in December, approximately twenty Kenyan police officers resigned from the mission due to the non-payment of wages and unsatisfactory working conditions.⁵⁹

On 15 December 2024, the US Ambassador, Dennis Hankins, highlighted the ongoing challenge pertaining to personnel, noting that by the end of the year, the number of foreign forces should have reached 1,000.⁶⁰ However, by the end of the month no more officers had arrived.⁶¹ Consequently, in early February 2025, the US government froze funding to the international security mission’s trust fund,⁶² but approved a waiver of $40.7 million in aid for the mission and the Haitian police.⁶³

In early February 2025, 70 soldiers from El Salvador and 144 officers from Kenya joined the mission, bringing the total number of personnel to about 1,000.⁶⁴ On 2 July 2025, the UN Secretary-General, António Guterres, appointed Carlos Ruiz Massieu as his new Special Representative for Haiti and head of BINUH.⁶⁵ On 14 July 2025, the UN Security Council extended BINUH’s mandate until January 2026 and expressed its commitment to establish without delay a UN support office to assist the Kenyan-led security forces.⁶⁶

Imposition of renewed sanctions on Haiti

On 19 October 2023, the UN Security Council in its Resolution 2700 renewed the sanctions first imposed on Haiti on 21 October 2022 by Resolution 2653 for a year.⁶⁷ The measures included a targeted arms embargo, travel bans and asset freezes.⁶⁸ On 8 December 2023, the Security Council expanded its sanctions list to include four gang leaders, and the United Kingdom and the United States imposed sanctions on various former officials due to their involvement in human rights violations and corruption.⁶⁹

On 20 August 2024, the US government imposed sanctions on former Haitian president Michel Martelly for his alleged involvement in sponsoring gangs, facilitation of drug trafficking, and money laundering.⁷⁰ A month later, the UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Luckson Elan, a prominent gang leader, and Prophane Victor, a former parliamentarian and the first member of the Haitian elite to be sanctioned by the UN for his support of the gangs.⁷¹ Additionally, on 18 October 2024, the UN Security Council renewed its general sanctions regime on Haiti for a year in Resolution 2752, and again for another year on 17 October 2025 (in Resolution 2794).⁷² Of particular note is the sanctioning on 8 July 2025 by the UN Security Council of the Viv Ansanm coalition (see below for details of the Coalition composition) and the Gran Grif gang (not part of the coalition, but which controls significant areas of the Artibonite department in central Haiti). The European Union (EU) Council sanctioned gang leaders Micanor Altès, Christ-Roi Chéry, and Jeff Larose on 15 July 2025.⁷³

Attempts at resolving the political crisis through dialogue

In December 2022, the National Consensus Agreement was concluded between the incumbent prime minister of Haiti, Ariel Henry, the opposition, and members of civil society.⁷⁴ This agreement established a new electoral timeline, rescheduling elections for 2023 and the inauguration of a new government for February 2024.⁷⁵ On 1 July 2023, during a visit to Haiti, UN Secretary-General António Guterres called on all actors in the political negotiations to concede what was ‘necessary for the restoration of democratic institutions’.⁷⁶ On 5 July 2023, US Secretary of State Antony Blinken, during a meeting with Ariel Henry, the acting prime minister, stressed the urgency of achieving political consensus.⁷⁷

On 12–15 July 2023, a CARICOM delegation convened with Haitian politicians and civil society leaders for talks aimed at resolving the ongoing crisis.⁷⁸ Despite not reaching consensus, the delegation asserted that progress had been made in reducing the number of parties involved in the dialogue and refining the agenda for negotiations.⁷⁹ The media reported a series of meetings from late July to August 2023 between the main Haitian political groups engaged in the negotiations to resolve the ongoing political crisis.⁸⁰ On 14 August 2023, CARICOM said its facilitation team had made ‘progress’ with multiple stakeholders during virtual meetings.⁸¹

However, the dialogue stalled over the ensuing months.⁸² The party Engagés pour le Développement, led by former prime minister Claude Joseph, announced in Port-au-Prince on 17 September 2023 that it was leaving the dialogue and joining the social movement calling for Prime Minister Henry’s resignation.⁸³ On 2 November 2023, Mirlande Manigat, the president of the High Council for Transition, voiced her concerns regarding implementation of the 2022 agreement.⁸⁴ On 7 December 2023, the UN Secretary-General articulated growing concern about the limited progress observed in the dialogue.⁸⁵

On 11 September 2024, deadly clashes broke out between three gangs belonging to the G9 coalition, illustrating the fragility of the Viv Ansanm alliance.¹²⁵ In an announcement on 10 November 2024, Chérizier indicated that the ‘observation stage’ had come to an end, and that the stage had now been set for a street battle with the objective of toppling the government.¹²⁶ The following day, gangs instigated a new wave of coordinated attacks in the capital, leading schools, businesses, and several embassies to close.¹²⁷

Several months later, inter-gang violence resurfaced as 400 Mawozo and Chen Mechan members fought each other on 6 and 7 June 2025 in the Santo 17 area, located to the north of the capital, over a dispute concerning a toll booth.¹²⁸ This incident marks the first armed confrontation between gangs affiliated with the Viv Ansanm coalition in 2025, and it is reported that at least two senior Chen Mechan leaders were killed.¹²⁹ However, in anticipation of the Transitional Presidential Council (TPC) presidency rotation ceremony (see below), Chérizier made a commitment on behalf of the Viv Ansanm coalition on 7 August 2025 to continue trying to overthrow the government.¹³⁰

Formation of the Transitional Presidential Council

Following a collapse in international support,¹³¹ and a wave of widespread protests led by ex-rebel leader Guy Philippe,¹³²Prime Minister Ariel Henry stepped down on 24 April 2024.¹³³ Various political actors combined to establish a transitional government, the TPC, tasked with nominating a new prime minister and planning for elections.¹³⁴ The TPC officially started functioning on 25 April 2024¹³⁵ and appointed the ex-president of the senate, Edgard Leblanc, as TPC president on 30 April 2024.¹³⁶ On 28 May 2024, the TPC nominated Garry Conille, the UNICEF regional director for Latin America and the Caribbean as prime minister.¹³⁷ Conille was sworn in on 3 June 2024.¹³⁸

The following months witnessed a growing tension between Conille and the TPC, for instance, over Conille’s visit to the United States and his proposal to restructure the cabinet.¹³⁹ These tensions ultimately led to the TPC dismissing Conille and selecting Alix DidierFils-Aimé as the new prime minister on 8 November 2024.¹⁴⁰This step was denounced by local political actors as lacking a legal basis, but Fils-Aimé’s nomination was officially endorsed by the United States on 12 November 2024.¹⁴¹ In October 2024, the TPC President Edgard Leblanc was replaced by Leslie Voltraire, a Haitian architect, amid mounting allegations of corruption against three members of the TPC.¹⁴²

After five months in office, as agreed upon by the TPC members in October 2024,¹⁴³ Voltaire stepped down and Fritz Alphonse Jean became the new TPC president on 7 March 2025 for another five-month term.¹⁴⁴ Shortly after his appointment, between April and June, Port-au-Prince witnessed a new wave of protests.¹⁴⁵ The cause was a widely held view that Prime Minister Fils-Aimé and the TPC had failed to counter gang violence and improve the security situation.¹⁴⁶

Negotiations in the TPC stalled amid internal disagreement among its members.¹⁴⁷ Laurent Saint-Cry, a Haitian businessman, took on the role of TPC president in August 2025. ¹⁴⁸ The TPC’s mandate was expiring in February 2026.¹⁴⁹

State response to gang violence

The Haitian police launched several operations to counter gang violence, mostly in Port-au-Prince, during the reporting period, with varying degrees of success. Notably, the police killed seventeen gang members, including the head of the Delmas 95 gang, Ernst Julme (also known as Ti Greg), a Viv Ansanm member, in March 2024.¹⁵⁰ Other campaigns were launched in early April 2024 in which both weapons and ammunition were seized,¹⁵¹ and in May 2025, when the police regained access to Varreux oil terminal and ensured the reopening of the Toussaint-Louverture airport in Port-au-Prince.¹⁵² On 14 June 2024, police director Frantz Elbé was sacked and replaced on 19 June by Normil Rameau who had served in the same position under former President Moïse.¹⁵³

On 17 July 2024, the Haitian government extended the state of emergency which had initially been declared in fourteen communes in response to escalating gang violence.¹⁵⁴ This state of emergency was expanded to the whole country on 2 September 2024 for a period of thirty days.¹⁵⁵ In the aftermath of the declaration, the police conducted operations against the 400 Mawozo gang (a Viv Ansanm member) in Croix-des-Bouquets,¹⁵⁶ as well as in Delmas commune, the stronghold of gang leader ‘Barbecue’, leading to the death of several gang members.¹⁵⁷ The operation was conducted with the support of the Kenyan-led MSS, which had deployed to Haiti (see above).¹⁵⁸ The mission also supported the Haitian police in the recapture of a strategic town in Artibonite department, Petite-Rivière de l’Artibonite, in early December 2024.¹⁵⁹

In early 2025, clashes between the police and security mission staff and gang members broke out in the Makako neighbourhood of Port-au-Prince and in Kenscoff commune, which had come under attack from the gangs in an attempt to expand their territorial footprint.¹⁶⁰ Both attacks were repelled in a joint effort by local and international security forces.¹⁶¹ The fighting reportedly displaced more than 4,000 people and killed at least fifty.¹⁶² In a parallel development, a new Security Secretary for the Port-au-Prince and Artibonite departments, Mario Andrésol, took office on 2 February 2025 and he was tasked with supervising law enforcement operations.¹⁶³

A new specialized task force was established on 1 March 2025 by the TPC and Prime Minister Fils-Aimé (see above).¹⁶⁴ This force reportedly comprises advisers from foreign private military and security companies (PMSCs) and is reinforced by elements of the prime minister’s Security Unit, as well as the General Security Unit of the National Palace.¹⁶⁵ Following the creation of the task force, multiple drone strikes were conducted in March 2025, notably in the Delmas 6 commune and areas around the capital, reportedly killing at least sixteen gang members.¹⁶⁶ It is unclear whether the Haitian police, under Normil Rameau, were informed of the drone strikes in advance.¹⁶⁷ Only in late July 2025 did the police leadership officially start coordinating ground operations and drone strikes with the special task force.¹⁶⁸

In March 2025, the Haitian police carried out an operation in which they seized firearms and more than 10,000 rounds of ammunition from gang members.¹⁶⁹ In the course of April and May 2025, at least nine drone strikes were carried out by the special task force in Kenscoff commune.¹⁷⁰ From early 2025, the Haitian TPC increasingly resorted to the use of paramilitary forces and PMSCs in an effort to tackle escalating gang violence.¹⁷¹ In an announcement on 3 April 2025, TPC President Fritz Jean declared the planned mobilization of the ‘Brigade de Surveillance des Aires Protégées’, a paramilitary group, to support the Haitian Armed Forces.¹⁷² In a similar development, the Haitian government reportedly reached an agreement with the US-based PMSC Vectus Global, led by former Blackwater-owner Erik Prince, over deployment of fighters to Haiti to help in tackling the gang crisis.¹⁷³ This claim later was repeated by several sources, which reported that the company had signed a ten-year contract with the Haitian government – a claim the government denied.¹⁷⁴ According to the Business and Human Rights Centre and Reuters news agency, Vectus Global deployed to Haiti in March 2025.¹⁷⁵ On 20 June 2025, Fritz Jean admitted to hiring a PMSC to reinforce the Haitian police but did not give details.¹⁷⁶

Between May and September 2025, the Haitian police launched multiple operations against gang strongholds.¹⁷⁷ Notably, operations were conducted in the Kraze Baryé area of Port-au-Prince in May 2025,¹⁷⁸ and in the capital’s southern neighbourhoods in June 2025, killing over 100 gang members in drone strikes.¹⁷⁹ On 12 June 2025, the National Human Rights Defence Network claimed that more than 300 gang members had been killed in drone attacks since March 2025.¹⁸⁰

In July 2025, clashes between security forces and gang members briefly lulled,¹⁸¹ but reignited in August 2025 when the Haitian police, supported by the Kenyan-led security mission, regained control over an air base in Kenscoff commune previously controlled by Viv Ansanm.¹⁸² A drone strike on 20 September 2025 in Port-au-Prince’s Cité Soleil neighbourhood, reportedly mounted by the government’s special task force, sparked public outrage as at least eight children were among the eleven victims.¹⁸³

Local responses to rising gang violence

During the reporting period, there was a surge in activity among civilian self-defence groups in response to heightened gang violence.¹⁸⁴ Notably, the Bwa Kale movement assassinated at least 224 suspected gang members between late April and late June 2023.¹⁸⁵ This vigilante movement, as with many other self-defence groups, consists of civilians armed with improvised weapons. Reportedly, this group also frequently burns the bodies of captured alleged gang members.¹⁸⁶

Throughout 2024, civilian self-defence groups intensified their response to the escalating gang violence, driving gang members from several Port-au-Prince neighbourhoods and areas outside the capital.¹⁸⁷ In December 2024, Artibonite department saw a surge in targeted killings of alleged gang members and their supporters by the self-defence groups, following the recapture of Petite-Rivière de l’Artibonite’s city centre by the Haitian police and the MSS (see above).¹⁸⁸ In the same area, members of the “La Coalition” self-defence group assassinated at least fourteen people on 20 May 2025 on the basis of their suspected collaboration with the Gran Grif gang.¹⁸⁹ Gran Grif gang is not a member of the Viv Ansanm gang.

Failed preparations for elections

On 18 September 2024, following repeated delays, the TPC created an electoral council tasked with organizing and overseeing elections before February 2026.¹⁹⁰ The Provisional Electoral Council (CEP) was finalized on 13 December 2024, following the official appointment of nine council members.¹⁹¹ In late January 2025, Leslie Voltaire, Haiti’s transitional president, publicly declared that elections would be held in November 2025 regardless of the continuing violence and serious logistical challenges.¹⁹² Voltaire’s announcement was, though, questioned at a meeting on 6 February 2025 between CARICOM and several Haitian political actors,¹⁹³ as well as during the CARICOM Heads of State summit from 19 to 21 February 2025.¹⁹⁴ Some argued that the prevailing security situation did not allow for the holding of democratic general elections.¹⁹⁵

On 7 May 2025, Prime Minister Fils-Aimé reiterated government plans to hold elections in late 2025. However, several political actors were sceptical of the timeline as envisioned by the transitional government;¹⁹⁶ notably, the Forum of Former Prime Ministers of Haiti demanded immediate negotiations to draw up a realistic agenda for the elections.¹⁹⁷ As a consequence of the unlikelihood of elections taking place in the agreed timeline, in October 2025 negotiations between TPC members and other political representatives to form a new leadership after the expiration of the TPC’s mandate in February 2026 began.¹⁹⁸ The lack of an implementable plan to hold elections before February 2026 led to increasing international pressure on the Haitian transitional government by, for example, the United States and the UN Security Council.¹⁹⁹

Massacres carried out by the Gran Grif gang and Viv Ansanm

The second half of 2024 saw two of the most violent gang attacks carried out in Haiti in decades.²⁰⁰ The first, on 3 October 2024, described as a ‘massacre’ by local and international news reports, was launched in the town of Pont-Sondé in Artibonite department.²⁰¹ At least 115 civilians were killed and over 6,000 people were displaced.²⁰² Shortly after the attack, Luckson Elan, the leader of the Gran Grif gang (not a Viv Ansanm member), who had been sanctioned by the UN Security Council only a few days earlier,²⁰³ announced that his gang was responsible for the incident and presented it as an act of retaliation against the civilians in the area who allegedly had cooperated with self-defence groups such as the ‘Coalition des Révolutionnaires pour Sauver l’Artibonite’ in carrying out attacks on gang members.²⁰⁴ The Haitian police reportedly failed to prevent or to counter this gang offensive.²⁰⁵

Transformation of the Kenyan-led MSS into a Gang Suppression Force and plans to establish a new mission led by Organization of American States

The step to transform the Kenyan-led MSS into a UN peacekeeping mission has been actively debated since the latter half of 2024. The former president of the TPC, Edgard Leblanc, in September 2024,²⁰⁹ as well as the current TPC president, Leslie Voltaire, in October 2024, requested the United Nations to authorize such a transformation in the hope that the step would secure stable funding and an enhanced capability.²¹⁰ In a UN Security Council meeting held on 20 November 2024, Russia and China voiced their disapproval of the transformation requested by Haiti, citing a prevailing funding crisis as the reason.²¹¹ In the aftermath of this meeting, UN Secretary-General António Guterres addressed the Security Council through a letter of 24 February 2025 in which he declared a transformation of the mission to be unrealistic but suggested they authorize logistical assistance to the MSS by the UN Support Office in Haiti (UNSOH).²¹²

Only in late September 2025, following a renewed request on 28 August by the US to transform the MSS into a UN peacekeeping mission,²¹³ did the UN Security Council vote, with China, Russia, and Pakistan abstaining, to transform the MSS into a Gang Suppression Force (GSF).²¹⁴ The UN Security Council further agreed to provide logistical and operational support to the GSF (5,550 personnel) through UNSOH.²¹⁵ The GSF has an initial twelve-month mandate to ‘neutralize gangs, secure infrastructure, and support humanitarian access’.²¹⁶ The legislative transformation formally became effective on 2 October 2025, after the mandate of the MSS had officially ended, amid prevailing uncertainty around the composition of the troop-contributing countries and the funding of stipends.²¹⁷ On 7 October 2025, the US delivered twenty armoured vehicles to the newly formed GSF, which had still to deploy to Haiti.²¹⁸

In a parallel development in May 2025, a report surfaced about the possibility of the establishment of an additional security mission to Haiti led by the Organization of American States (OAS).²¹⁹ On 20 May 2025, US Secretary of State Marco Rubio declared that the Kenyan-led MSS was not able to tackle the security situation on its own.²²⁰ On 6 June 2025, Colombian President Gustavo Petro declared his willingness to contributing troops to a potential OAS-led security mission.²²¹ On 1 August, OAS Secretary-General, Albert Ramdin, announced a $1.4bn proposal for a potential OAS-led mission to Haiti, which was later adjusted to a $2.6bn proposal to support the Haitian security forces in combatting gangs, providing humanitarian aid, and facilitating democratic elections.²²² As of end-October 2025, however, no mission had been established.

Terrorist designation of Gran Grif and Viv Ansanm gangs by the United States and arrests of gang members on US territory

On 2 May 2025, the US formally classified the Viv Ansanm and Gran Grif coalitions as foreign terrorist organizations.²²³ This designation has the consequence that anyone supporting these groups is subject to US sanctions and criminal charges.²²⁴ Secretary of State Rubio clarified on 21 May 2025 that humanitarian groups compelled to remit tolls to gangs while distributing aid to residents would not face criminal charges.²²⁵

On 17 July 2025, the US Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Homeland Security Investigations (ICE) made its first high-level arrest, namely of the Haitian-American businessman Pierre Réginald Boulos, for his alleged affiliation with the gangs.²²⁶ Shortly after, on 12 August 2025, US federal prosecutors indicted gang leader Jimmy Chérizier, as well as US citizen Bazile Richardson on charges of conspiracy to circumvent sanctions placed on Chérizier.²²⁷ The United States revoked the visas of persons supporting the gangs on 15 September 2025, and on 23 September arrested Dimitri Vorbe, a well-known Haitian businessman.²²⁸

Non-international armed conflict between Haiti and Viv Ansanm

Background

The moniker ‘Viv Ansanm’ means ‘living together’¹ Viv Ansanm originated in September 2023, when several gangs operating in Port-au-Prince came under the same umbrella.² This alliance represented a merger of two previously rival gang confederations: the Revolutionary Forces of the G9 Family and Allies (G9), led by Jimmy Chérizier (‘Barbecue’); and the G-Pèp (G-People) alliance, led by Gabriel Jean Pierre (‘Ti Gabriel’).³ Viv Ansanm consists of both a political and a military wing.⁴ On 29 February 2024, Viv Ansanm initiated its violent opposition to the Haitian transition government.⁵ The groups purposefully reactivated their ‘living together’ alliance to mount coordinated attacks against critical infrastructure.⁶

Intensity

Most of the attacks launched by Viv Ansanm were not directed at Haitian forces, but rather at Haitian State infrastructure. Initially, these attacks met with no government response. These unilateral attacks are included in this intensity assessment. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) clarifies that the assessment of NIACs includes unilateral use of force, even if not responded to by the opposing party, as long as the opposing party meets the criterion of organization, which the Haitian State forces clearly do.⁷ Attacks of this nature were launched by Viv Ansanm throughout the reporting period, including in February, ⁸ March,⁹ April,¹⁰ May,¹¹ June,¹² August,¹³ October,¹⁴ November,¹⁵ and December 2024,¹⁶ and January ¹⁷ February,¹⁸ March,¹⁹ August,²⁰ and October 2025.²¹

Viv Ansanm’s coordination and frequency of strategic attacks allowed this non-State actor to expand its control over even more territory in Haiti. Specifically, the coalition managed to consolidate additional territorial control in Port-au-Prince during the period under review. ²² Territorial control by a non-State actor indicates that the threshold of protracted armed violence may be met.²³

In Boškoski and Tarčulovski, the Trial Chamber stated that:

At a more systemic level, an indicative factor of internal armed conflict is the way that organs of the State, such as the police and military, use force against armed groups. In such cases, it may be instructive to analyse the use of force by governmental authorities, in particular, how certain human rights are interpreted, such as the right to life and the right to be free from arbitrary detention, in order to appreciate if the situation is one of armed conflict.²⁴

Haitian law enforcement and task forces have responded in a military manner by employing armed drones against Viv Ansanm as of March 2025.²⁵

These drone attacks resulted in many casualties. ACLED recorded fifty fatalities following seventeen drone operations conducted in March 2025,²⁶ and 101 fatalities as a result of eight drone strikes by law enforcement against Viv Ansanm during May.²⁷ Particularly deadly drone attacks include those strikes which took place between 9 and 10 June 2025, when law enforcement killed 100 fighters in the southern neighbourhoods of Port-au-Prince.²⁸

The response by Haitian security forces through drones indicates a shift of the Haitian government’s own assessment of this situation.²⁹

Several UN agencies monitored casualties resulting from violence generated by Viv Ansanm during the reporting period. At least 5,601 people were killed in 2024 as a result of gang violence (both Viv Ansanm and other gangs) according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).³⁰ Between July 2024 and February 2025, OHCHR documented 4,239 killings and a further 1,356 people injured by the violence.³¹ The violence further intensified in the first half of 2025, with at least 2,680 people killed between 1 January and 30 May.³²

Violence generated by Viv Ansanm often leads to the destruction of property, as wanton destruction of military objectives and civilian objects forms part of the coalition’s military tactics. Destruction is evidenced specifically in the Port-au-Prince metropolitan area.³³ Civilian homes, police stations, and prisons are systematically targeted.³⁴ The destruction of significant civilian objects includes the burning of several higher education institutions, specifically the Faculties of Science, Linguistics, Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, and Medicine and Pharmacy, and the École Normale Supérieure at the State University of Haiti, the National School of Arts, the Mixed School Les Frères Nau, as well as the National Library in Port-au-Prince.³⁵ Viv Ansanm also launched recurring attacks against the National Palace of Haiti.³⁶

The intensity of violence generated by Viv Ansanm’s opposition to the Haitian security forces resulted in severe internal displacement. The IOM reported that internal displacement rose sharply from 362,000 people in March 2024 to more than 578,000 people in June 2024 IOM,³⁷ before eventually climbing to almost 1.3 million for the country as a whole by June 2025 – almost ten per cent of the population. By October 2025, the IOM reported 1.4 million internally displaced persons.³⁸Violence provoked a twenty-four per cent increase in the number of IDPs in only six months following IOM’s December 2024 tally.³⁹

International concern includes the UN Security Council ⁴⁰ and the United States listing Viv Ansanm as a terrorist organization.⁴¹ As a direct result of the nature of violence generated by Viv Ansanm in particular in Haiti, the MSS mission started its deployment in June 2024, following UN Security Council authorization in early October 2023.⁴² The relevant resolution was adopted by thirteen votes to nil with two abstentions (China and Russia). The MSS, which had a mandate through to 2 October 2025, had reached 1,000 personnel, with troops from the Bahamas, Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Jamaica, and Kenya (the leader of the mission). But this was less than half of the 2,500 personnel initially planned.⁴³

Owing to further escalation in violence in Haiti, the UN Security Council, in late September 2025, authorized Member States to transition the MSS mission to the ‘Gang Suppression Force’ (GSF).⁴⁴ The resolution authorized Member States participating in the GSF, ‘in strict compliance with international law, including international human rights law’ to ‘neutralize, isolate, and deter gangs that continue to threaten the civilian population, abuse human rights and undermine Haitian institutions’. They were also tasked with providing security for critical infrastructure sites ‘together and in coordination with the Haitian National Police (HNP) and the Haitian armed forces’.⁴⁵

The intensity of violence generated in the situation between Haiti and Viv Ansanm equates to protracted armed violence and meets the intensity requirement demanded by IHL to constitute a NIAC.

Organization

Viv Ansanm originated in September 2023 through the coming together of criminal gangs (see above) who, on occasion, experienced some infighting⁴⁶ This section examines the nature of organization of Viv Ansanm as a singular non-State actor since its reactivation in February 2024 when it first launched military operations against the Haitian government.⁴⁷ The overall leader of Viv Ansanm is Jimmy Chérizier, alias ‘Barbecue’.⁴⁸

On an organizational level, Viv Ansanm has displayed a high level of internal discipline.⁴⁹ As can be expected, inter-gang tensions do sometimes occur (see above). However, ‘the Viv Ansanm coalition has preserved its cohesion, with frictions underscoring its capacity to manage disputes through structured coordination and negotiated restraint’.⁵⁰ This illustrates that the fighters from individual gangs who are united under the Viv Ansanm military wing are organized in a united manner responding to the hierarchical leadership structure of this non-State actor and no longer acting as individual gangs.

Viv Ansanm engages in systematic extortion through aligned criminal governance in controlled areas.⁵¹ Revenue is generated at gang level as different gangs who constitute the military wing of Viv Ansanm have different illicit portfolios that fuel its income stream. ⁵² Much of the revenue generated by Viv Ansanm is invested in weapons and ammunition acquisition through the consolidated arms supply network established by its member gangs. Supply networks include those from the US, the Dominican Republic, as well as from Jamaica.⁵³

Viv Ansanm’s overall military tactics are geared towards its goal to violently oppose the Haitian transitional government. To achieve its objective, it launches coordinated attacks against critical Haitian State infrastructure.⁵⁴ Evidence of the success of these military operations includes the resignation of former Haitian prime minister Ariel Henry.⁵⁵ At the end of this reporting period, June 2025, this non-State actor refocused its strategic and coordinated attacks against what is referred to as the ‘last free bastions of the capital’, including Pétion-Ville, Haut Delmas, and Kenscoff communes.⁵⁶

Territorial gains enabled Viv Ansanm to streamline coordinated attacks, and expand its territorial control.⁵⁷ Viv Ansanm controls around 85 to 90 per cent of Port-au-Prince.⁵⁸ This ability to control territory enables it to implement IHL. Territorial control is an additional indicator that a non-State armed group is organized under IHL.⁵⁹

Viv Ansanm has managed to establish a media presence and promote a united public image.⁶⁰ Jimmy Chérizier often makes statements or releases propaganda videos on behalf of Viv Ansanm.⁶¹ These media releases indicate unity of voice.

Viv Ansanm, composed of multiple gangs, is sufficiently organized under IHL to constitute a party to a NIAC.

A NIAC between Haiti and Viv Ansanm ignited during the reporting period.

1
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 14.
2
‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council; S. Pellegrini, ‘Viv Ansanm: Living together, fighting united – the alliance reshaping Haiti’s gangland’, ALCED, 16 October 2024.
3
F. Robles, ‘Massacre in Haiti’s Capital Leaves Nearly 200 Dead, U.N. Says’, The New York Times, 8 December 2024.
4
‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2752 (2024)’, UN Doc S/2025/356, 10 June 2025, para 18.
5
‘Viv Ansanm’, UN Security Council; S. Pellegrini, ‘Viv Ansanm: Living together, fighting united – the alliance reshaping Haiti’s gangland’, ALCED, 16 October 2024.
6
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 14.
7
‘How is the Term “Armed Conflict” Defined in International Humanitarian Law’, International Committee of the Red Cross, 2024, 14 – 15.
8
M. Rios et al, ‘Gunfire near Haiti airport disrupts flights for second day’, CNN, 1 March 2024; ‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 24
9
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, paras 15, 31, 141, 160, and Annex 36; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Spirale de violences en Haïti: l’aéroport attaqué par les gangs’, France 24, 5 March 2024; ‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council
10
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, paras 153 and 154; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group
11
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, paras 139 and 154; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Locked in Transition: Politics and Violence in Haiti’, International Crisis Group, 19 February 2025
12
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 33; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group
13
‘Locked in Transition: Politics and Violence in Haiti’, International Crisis Group, 19 February 2025; ‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, Annex 5 and Annex 17
14
‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2752 (2024)’, UN Doc S/2025/356, 10 June 2025, para 22; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group
15
‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council; UN Experts_06/25 paras 28, 38, 48; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group
16
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group
17
‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2752 (2024)’, UN Doc S/2025/356, 10 June 2025, paras 24, 26, 29, and 40; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. L. Franciotti and M. F. Arocha, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: February 2025’, ACLED, 7 February 2025
18
ACLED_07/03/25; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2752 (2024)’, UN Doc S/2025/356, 10 June 2025, paras 23, 27, 33, and 42
19
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. F. Arocha et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: May 2025’, ACLED, 8 May 2025; ‘Haïti/insecurité: près de 6000 déplacements forcés enregistrés à Mirebalais et Saut-d’Eau en deux jours, selon l’OIM’, Gazette Haiti, 2 April 2025
20
M. F. Arocha et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: September 2025’, ACLED, 5 September 2025 September,‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. F. Arocha et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: October 2025’, ACLED, 3 October 2025
21
M. F. Arocha et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: October 2025’, ACLED, 3 October 2025.
22
‘Viv Ansanm’, UNSC.
23
ICC, ‘The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda’, Judgement, Trial Chamber VI, 8 July 2019, para 717; ICC, ‘The Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi’, Judgment and Sentence, Trial Chamber VIII, 27 September 2016, para 49.
24
ICTY, ‘Prosecutor v Ljube Boškoski and Johan Tarčulovski’, Judgment, Trial Chamber II, 10 July 2008, para 178.
25
M. F. Arocha et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: October 2025’, ACLED, 3 October 2025; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; R. Alphonse, ‘Drone explosif et hélicoptère utilisés contre les gangs à Kenscoff’, le Nouvelliste, 24 July 2025; J. Coenen et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: August 2025’, ACLED, 8 August 2025; J. Coenen, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: July 2025’, ACLED, 4 July 2025; Primature de la Rèpublique d’Haïti, X, 2 March 2025.
26
L. C. Fuentes et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: April 2025’, ACLED, 3 April 2025
27
L. C. Fuentes et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: June 2025’, 6 June 2025.
28
J. Coenen, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: July 2025’, ACLED, 4 July 2025; ‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
29
ICTY, ‘Prosecutor v Ljube Boškoski and Johan Tarčulovski’, Judgement, Trial Chamber II, 10 July 2008, para 178.
30
‘Haiti: Over 5,600 killed in gang violence in 2024, UN figures show’, OHCHR, 7 January 2025.
31
‘Restoring dignity: A global call to end the violence in Haiti’, OHCHR, 7 April 2025.
32
‘Haiti: UN Human Rights Chief alarmed by widening violence as gangs expand reach’, OHCHR, 13 June 2025.
33
‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council; ‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, paras 139–141.
34
‘Last Chance: Breaking Haiti’s Political Criminal Impasse’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, January 2025, 6.
35
‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council.
36
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 31.
37
‘Haiti – Key information on the internal displacement situation in Haiti – Round 7 (June 2024)’, International Organization for Migration, 9 June 2024
38
‘Displacement in Haiti Reaches Record High as 1.4 Million People Flee Violence’, International Organization for Migration, 15 October 2025.
39
‘Haiti Sees Record Displacement as 1.3 Million Flee Violence’, International Organization for Migration, 11 June 2025.
40
‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council
41
M. Rubio, ‘Terrorist Designations of Viv Ansanm and Gran Grif’, US Department of State, 2 May 2025.
42
UNSC ‘Resolution 2699 (2023)’, 2 October 2023, operative para 1.
43
M. Besheer, ‘UN chief rules out UN peacekeepers for Haiti’, Voice of America, 25 February 2025.
44
‘Resolution 2793 (2025)’, 30 September 2025, para 1.
45
‘Resolution 2793 (2025)’, 30 September 2025, operative para 1(a) and (b).
46
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, 2; https://docs.un.org/en/S/2024/253 Annex 1.
47
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 24.
48
‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council.
49
‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025, 14.
50
‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025, 14.
51
‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025, 14.
52
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 156.
53
‘Last Chance: Breaking Haiti’s Political Criminal Impasse’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, January 2025, 5–6.
54
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 14.
55
‘Viv Ansanm’, United Nations Security Council.
56
‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2752 (2024)’, UN Doc S/2025/356, 10 June 2025, para 24.
57
‘Last Chance: Breaking Haiti’s Political Criminal Impasse’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, January 2025, 5.
58
‘Haiti: More than 1,500 killed between April and June’, UN News, 1 August 2025; ‘Report of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime pursuant to paragraph 9 of Security Council resolution 2692 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2025/420, 27 June 2025, para 3.
59
ICTY, ‘Prosecutor v Ljube Boškoski and Johan Tarčulovski’, Judgement, Trial Chamber II, 10 July 2008, para 199 – 203; ICTR, ‘Prosecutor v Alfred Musema’,Judgment and Sentence,Trial ChamberI, 27 January 2000,para 258; ICTY, ‘Prosecutor v Ramush Haradinaj, Idriz Balaj and Lahi Brahimaj’, Judgement, Trial Chamber I, 3 April 2008, para 60; ‘2025 Commentary to Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949: Article 3 – Conflicts not of an international character’, ICRC, para 501.
60
‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, para 49.
61
‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2752 (2024)’, UN Doc S/2025/356, 10 June 2025, paras 18 and 28; ‘Final report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/704, 30 September 2024, Annex 4; ‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025, 14.

State Parties

Haiti

Non-state parties

Viv Ansanm

Other actors

Vectus Global (US PMSC led by Blackwater-founder Erik Prince)
Brigade de Surveillance des Aires Protégées (a paramilitary force)

Foreign Involvement

United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti (BINUH)
Multinational Security Support (MSS) mission to Haiti [until 2 October 2025]

1
‘Haitian Revolution’, Britannica
2
S. Buck-Morss, ‘Hegel and Haiti’, Critical Inquiry 26, 2000.
3
‘Jean-Jacques Dessalines’, Britannica; ‘Toussaint Louverture’, Britannica, 2026.
4
‘Toussaint Louverture’, National Museum of African American History and Culture.
5
‘Jean-Jacques Dessalines’, Britannica.
6
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; M. L. Daut, ‘200 years ago, France extorted Haiti in one of history’s greatest heists – and Haitians want reparations’, The Conversation, 16 April 2025; G. K. Gaillard-Pourchet, ‘Haiti’s independence debt. The slave as a unit of account (1794-1922)’, Bibliothèque nationale de France, November 2023; Vijay, ‘Two Hundred Years Ago, France Strangled the Haitian Revolution with an Inhumane Debt: The Seventeenth Newsletter (2025)’, The Tricontinental, 24 April 2025.
7
D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; G. Rosalsky, ‘‘The Greatest Heist In History’: How Haiti Was Forced To Pay Reparations For Freedom’, NPR, 5 October 2021; ‘Haiti: Free from slavery, not yet free from debt’, Debt Justice; ‘How Haiti paid for its freedom – twice over’, UN News, 19 April 2025.
8
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘Timeline: Haiti’s history and current crisis, explained’, Concern Worldwide US, 18 January 2025
9
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘Timeline: Haiti’s history and current crisis, explained’, Concern Worldwide US, 18 January 2025; B. Osgood, ‘What is the history of foreign interventions in Haiti?’, Al Jazeera, 14 March 2024
10
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘Timeline: Haiti’s history and current crisis, explained’, Concern Worldwide US, 18 January 2025; E. C. Burks, ‘Duvalier Rules Haiti by the Gun and Carries One’, The New York Times, 2 March 1965; ‘Haiti: The truth must not die with Jean-Claude Duvalier’, Amnesty International, 7 October 2014.
11
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘Profile: Jean-Bertrand Aristide’, BBC News, 3 March 2011; ‘Haitians Celebrate Their First Democratic Election’, UN Photo, 17 December 1990.
12
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘Haiti: Background to the 1991 Overthrow of President Aristide’, Every CRS Report, 22 October 1993; S. Filippova et al, ‘From coup to chaos: 20 years after the US ousted Haiti’s president’, Responsible Statecraft, 1 March 2024; ‘The Overthrow of Haiti’s Aristide’, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training; ‘Today in history: 1991 coup removes Aristide, sparking mass migration to the US’, The Haitian Times, 30 September 2025.
13
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; S. Filippova et al, ‘From coup to chaos: 20 years after the US ousted Haiti’s president’, Responsible Statecraft, 1 March 2024; C. Méheut et al, ‘Demanding Reparations, and Ending Up in Exile’, The New York Times, 20 May 2022; ‘Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Policy, 1993 – 2000: Intervention in Haiti, 1994–1995’, US Department of State: Office of the Historian.
14
‘Haiti: Human Rights Development’, Human Rights Watch, 1997; ‘Visit to the Commission by the President of Haiti, Mr Rene Preval’, European Commission, 10 June 1996; ‘Haiti Inaugurates Relief President’, Time, 7 February 1996; A. Wilentz, ‘René Préval: The Unassuming President Who Wanted to Save Haiti’, Politico, 28 December 2017
15
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; S. Filippova et al, ‘From coup to chaos: 20 years after the US ousted Haiti’s president’, Responsible Statecraft, 1 March 2024; C. Méheutet al, ‘Demanding Reparations, and Ending Up in Exile’, The New York Times, 20 May 2022; D. Gonzalez, ‘Aristide’s Return: Bad News Perhaps for Him and Haiti’, The New York Times, 24 November 2000.
16
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; C. Méheut et al, ‘Demanding Reparations, and Ending Up in Exile’, The New York Times, 20 May 2022.
17
M. L. Daut, ‘200 years ago, France extorted Haiti in one of history’s greatest heists – and Haitians want reparations’, The Conversation, 16 April 2025; C. Méheut et al, ‘Demanding Reparations, and Ending Up in Exile’, The New York Times, 20 May 2022; M. Fisher, ‘The Long Road Ahead for Colonial Reparations’, 27 August 2022; J. Gautheret, ‘The grim legacy of Haiti’s ‘double debt’’, Le Monde, 17 April 2025.
18
‘Haiti: Events of 2004’, Human Rights Watch; ‘Attacks on the Press in 2004 – Haiti’, Refworld, February 2025; ‘Report of the Secretary-General on Haiti’, UN Doc S/2004/300, 16 April 2004.
19
M. Wines, ‘Aristide Says He Was Duped By U.S. Into Leaving Haiti’, The New York Times, 14 March 2004; ‘Aristide’s kidnapping claims upset Central African hosts’, NBC News, 12 February 2004; ‘Violence in Haiti Forces President Aristide Out, US Steps In – 2004-03-10’, Voice of America, 20 October 2009.
20
‘Violence in Haiti Forces President Aristide Out, US Steps In – 2004-03-10’, Voice of America, 20 October 2009; R. Carroll, ‘Exiled Aristide urges Haitian resistance’, The Guardian, 9 March 2004; ‘US dismisses Aristide kidnap claim’, Al Jazeera, 2 March 2004.
21
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘MINUSTAH Fact sheet’, MINUSTAH.
22
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; D. Maçon et al, ‘In Haiti, disaster risks linger as another earthquake anniversary passes’, Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems, 14 January 2022.
23
‘Haiti: Events of 2004’, Human Rights Watch; ‘Devastation Caused by Tropical Storm Jeanne to Inhabitants of Haiti’, United Nations Photo, 19 September 2004; ‘Floods in Gonaives, Haiti’, Earth Observatory: NASA, 22 September 2004.
24
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘Hurricanes Fay, Gustav, Hanna, and Ike 2008 Haiti Post Disaster Needs Assessment’, Prevention Web, 12 November 2021; R. M. Perito, ‘Haiti After the Storms: Weather and Conflict’, US Institute of Peace, 11 November 2008.
25
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘Haiti – 2010 – PDNA estimated the earthquake impacts equivalent to 120% of GDP’, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery; ‘UN marks anniversary of devastating 2010 Haiti earthquake’, UN News, 12 January 2022.
26
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘Singer ‘Sweet Micky’ Is Haiti’s President-Elect’, NPR, 5 April 2011; ‘Michel Martelly officially declared Haitian president’, BBC, 21 April 2011.
27
D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘Haiti election: Pressure to include Michel Martelly’, BBC News, 21 January 2011.
28
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; J. Charles, ‘Martelly’s one-man rule comes to an end in Haiti’, Miami Herald, 10 January 2016.
29
D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘Haiti’s parliament dissolved after last-ditch negotiations to avert crisis fail’, The Guardian, 13 January 2015; ‘Political uncertainty in Haiti as parliament is dissolved’, BBC News, 14 January 2015; A. Baron, ‘Haiti enters uncertain political phase as parliament dissolved’, Reuters, 13 January 2015.
30
D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘Jovenel Moise elected president of Haiti’, CBC, 28 November 2016; ‘Haiti presidential election ‘won by Jovenel Moise’’, BBC News, 29 November 2016.
31
D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘Haiti annuls presidential poll result, sets new election date’, France 24, 7 June 2016.
32
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘Haiti: Jovenel Moise confirmed winner of presidential election’, BBC News, 4 January 2017; C. Domonoske, ‘14 Months After Elections Began, Haiti Finally Has A President-Elect’, NPR, 4 January 2017; ‘Jovenel Moise sworn in as Haiti’s new president’, Al Jazeera, 7 February 2017.
33
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘UN condemns ‘abhorrent’ assassination of Haiti President Jovenel Moïse’, UN News, 7 July 2021; ‘Haiti president’s assassination: What we know so far’, BBC, 1 February 2023; ‘Jovenel Moise: Haiti’s president assassinated at age 53’, Al Jazeera, 7 July 2021.
34
T. Glawion, ‘Haiti’, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 17 October 2024; ‘Gang Violence and unrest in Haiti’, Amnesty International; ‘Haiti’s gangs have ‘near-total control’ of the capital, U.N. says’, NPR, 3 July 2025.
35
‘Haiti: Children suffering gang recruitment, attacks and sexual violence amid escalating crisis – new report’, Amnesty International, 12 February 2025; H. Isaac and S. Morland, ‘Haitian gang slaughters at least 70 people as thousands flee’, Reuters, 5 October 2024; ‘‘An unending horror story’: Gangs and human rights abuses expand in Haiti’, UN News, 11 July 2025; ‘Haiti: Violence and displacement driving humanitarian crisis as funding needs go unmet’, UN News, 23 July 2025.
36
D. Roy and R. Cara, ‘Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development’, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 November 2025; ‘UN marks anniversary of devastating 2010 Haiti earthquake’, UN News, 12 January 2022.
37
‘Haiti’, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 14 May 2025.
38
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Kenya ready to lead multinational force to Haiti’, Reuters, 29 July 2023; ‘Kenya Says It’s Ready to Lead Multinational Force in Haiti’, Voice of America, 29 July 2023.
39
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Statement on Haiti – Forty-Fifth Regular Meeting of CARICOM Heads of Government, Trinidad and Tobago, 3-5 July 2023’, Caricom: Caribbean Community, 7 June 2023.
40
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘About’, United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti.
41
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Security Council Extends Mandate of United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2692 (2023)’, UN Press Release, 14 July 2023.
42
‘G9 and Family’, InSight Crime, 11 December 2023
43
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti gang leader vows to fight any foreign armed force if it commits abuses’, The Guardian, 17 August 2023; ‘Haitian gang leader warns potential foreign force against any abuses’, Al Jazeera, 17 August 2023; S. Lemaire and M. Vilme, ‘Haiti Gang Leader Welcomes, Warns UN Multinational Force’, Voice of America, 16 August 2023
44
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti: Surge in Violent Abuses’, Human Rights Watch, 14 August 2023.
45
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. D. Sénat, ‘Kenyan Representatives Favor Offensive Operational Force Against Gang Activity’, Le Nouvelliste, 25 August 2023.
46
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; UN, ‘Security Council Authorizes Multinational Security Support Mission for Haiti for Initial Period of One Year, by Vote of 13 in Favour with 2 Abstentions’, Press release, 2 October 2023.
47
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Security Council Authorizes Multinational Security Support Mission for Haiti for Initial Period of One Year, by Vote of 13 in Favour with 2 Abstentions’, Press release, 2 October 2023.
48
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Court blocks Kenya from deploying police officers to Haiti to fight gangs’, The Guardian, 9 October 2023; J. Charles, ‘Kenya’s high court blocks deployment of forces to Haiti until it can hear challenge’, AOL, 9 October 2023.
49
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Kenya dispatch: government deployment of Kenyan police to gang-plagued Haiti provokes debate, division’, Jurist News, 29 November 2023; ‘Kenyan High Court blocks parliamentary authorization of police mission to Haiti’, Peoples Dispatch, 18 November 2023.
50
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; C. Kimeu and L. Taylor, ‘Kenya high court rules against plan to deploy hundreds of police to Haiti’, The Guardian, 26 January 2024; I. Walufa, ‘Kenya court blocks police deployment to Haiti’, BBC, 26 January 2024; ‘‘Illegal and invalid’: Kenya court halts deployment of police to Haiti’, Al Jazeera, 26 January 2024.
51
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; C. Balmer, ‘Kenyan president says Haiti mission to go ahead despite court ruling’, Reuters, 30 January 2024; W. Muia, ‘Kenyan President Ruto says Haiti mission to go ahead soon despite court ruling’, BBC, 31 January 2024.
52
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; D. C. Adams et al, ‘Kenya Hits Pause on Police Deployment to Haiti’, The New York Times, 12 March 2024; ‘Kenya pauses police deployment to Haiti after PM’s resignation’, Reuters, 12 March 2024; T. Odula, ‘Kenya’s government puts deployment of police to Haiti on hold after chaos grips the Caribbean nation’, AP News, 12 March 2024.
53
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. Berg and E. Bazail-Eimil, ‘Kenyan forces are about to land in Haiti – with nowhere clear to stay’, Politico, 29 April 2024.
54
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Kenyan police contingent arrives in Haiti as protests roil Nairobi’, Al Jazeera, 25 June 2024; T. Phillips and E. Côté-Paluck, ‘Haitians wary as Kenyan police arrive on latest US-backed mission’, The Guardian, 25 June 2024; H. Isaac and P. Fletcher, ‘Kenyan police taunted as they square up to Haiti’s gangs’, BBC, 10 August 2024; ‘Hundreds more Kenyan police deployed to Haiti for UN-backed security mission’, France 24, 16 July 2024; ‘200 additional Kenyan police arrive in Haiti in UN-backed mission to fight criminal gangs’, Voice of America, 16 July 2024.
55
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
56
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haitian prime minister declares state of emergency’, Prensa Latina, 18 July 2024; R. Alphonse, ‘Executive Declares State of Emergency in 14 Gang-Controlled Areas, Announces PM Garry Conille’, Le Nouvelliste, 17 July 2024.
57
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; D. Mohor et al, ‘Haiti in-depth: Why the Kenya-led security mission is floundering’, The New Humanitarian, 13 January 2025.
58
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2751 (2024), Security Council Extends Authorization for Kenya-Led Security Support Mission in Haiti for One Year’, UN Press release, 30 September 2024.
59
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; E. Okoth, ‘Kenyan police in Haiti submit resignations over pay delays’, Reuters, 6 December 2024; V. Abuso, ‘Kenya says police in Haiti fully paid amid report of resignations over wages’, The Africa Report, 10 December 2024.
60
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. J. Celestin, ‘U.S. Ambassador Describes Haiti’s Security Improvements as Slow but Encouraging’, Le Nouvelliste, 16 December 2024.
61
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. J. Celestin, ‘U.S. Ambassador Describes Haiti’s Security Improvements as Slow but Encouraging’, Le Nouvelliste, 16 December 2024.
62
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. Nichols, ‘US freezes some funding for security mission tackling Haiti’s gangs’, Reuters, 6 February 2025
63
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘More Kenyan police arrive in Haiti to shore up security mission after US funding limbo’, Reuters, 7 February 2025.
64
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘200 Kenyan police officers arrive at UN mission in Haiti’, Voice of America, 6 February 2025; J. Blaise, ‘70 Salvadoran soldiers arrive in Haiti to bolster multinational mission against gangs’, The Haitian Times, 4 February 2025.
65
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; UN, ‘Secretary-General Appoints Carlos G. Ruiz Massieu of Mexico Special Representative for Haiti, Integrated Office Chief’, Press release, 3 July 2025.
66
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; UN, ‘Security Council Extends Mandate of United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2785 (2025)’, Press release, 14 July 2025.
67
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; UN, ‘Security Council Renews Sanctions Regime, Targeted Arms Embargo on Haiti for One Year, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2700 (2023)’, Press release, 19 October 2023; ‘Security Council Establishes Sanctions Regime on Haiti, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2653 (2022)’, Press release, 21 October 2022.
68
‘Security Council Renews Sanctions Regime, Targeted Arms Embargo on Haiti for One Year, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2700 (2023)’, Press release, 19 October 2023.
69
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Security Council 2653 Sanctions Committee Adds 4 Entries to Its Sanctions List’, Press release, 8 December 2023; ‘Treasury Designates Perpetrators of Human Rights Abuse and Commemorates the 75th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’, US Department of Treasury, 8 December 2023; ‘The Haiti (Sanctions) (Amendment) Regulations 2023’, Legislation.gov.uk.
70
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Treasury Sanctions Former Haitian President for Drug Trafficking’, US Department of the Treasury, 20 August 2024.
71
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Security Council 2653 Sanctions Committee Adds 2 Entries to Its Sanctions List’, Press release, 27 September 2024.
72
‘Security Council Renews Sanctions Regime on Haiti for One Year, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2752 (2024)’, Press release, 18 October 2024; ‘Security Council Renews Sanctions Regime on Haiti, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2794 (2025)’, UN Press release, 17 October 2025.
73
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Security Council 2653 Sanctions Committee Adds 2 Entries to Its Sanctions List’, Press release, 8 July 2025; ‘Haiti: EU lists three individuals and renews sanctions regime for an additional year’, European Council, 15 July 2025.
74
‘BTI 2024 Country Report – Haiti’, Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2024.
75
‘In Haiti, stakeholders sign agreement “for inclusive transition and transparent elections” over 14-month period’, Constitution.net, 22 December 2022; ‘BTI 2024 Country Report – Haiti’, Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2024. The failure to implement the agreement resulted in an escalation of the prevailing political crisis.‘BTI 2024 Country Report – Haiti’, Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2024.
76
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘UN chief calls for a robust global force to help crisis-hit Haiti’, Al Jazeera, 1 July 2023.
77
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; A. J. Blinken, ‘Secretary Blinken and Haitian Prime Minister Ariel Henry Before Their Meeting’, US Department of State, 5 July 2023.
78
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Statement from the Meeting of the CARICOM Eminent Persons Group with Haitian Stakeholders in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, on 12-15 July 2023’, Caricom: Caribbean Community, 18 July 2023.
79
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Statement from the Meeting of the CARICOM Eminent Persons Group with Haitian Stakeholders in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, on 12-15 July 2023’, Caricom: Caribbean Community, 18 July 2023.
80
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
81
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘CARICOM Eminent Persons Group Recent Activities’, St. Kitts & Nevis Information Services, 14 August 2023.
82
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
83
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
84
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
85
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General – on Haiti’, United Nations, Haiti, 8 December 2023.
86
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2023/492, 3 July 2023.
87
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Funding cuts force WFP to slash food assistance as one-in-two Haitians go hungry’, World Food Programme, 17 July 2023.
88
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘“Living a Nightmare”: Haiti Needs an Urgent Rights-Based Response to Escalating Crisis’, Human Rights Watch, 14 August 2023.
89
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
90
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti: UN envoy upholds critical role of elections amid rising gang violence’, UN News, 23 October 2023.
91
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti: Ambulance attack forces MSF to suspend activities at Turgeau’, MSF, 14 December 2023; ‘Attack on ambulance forces suspension of activities in Port-au-Prince emergency centre’, MSF, 19 December 2023.
92
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise, ‘Doctors Without Borders forced to shut another hospital, after months of attacks’, The Haitian Times, 16 October 2025.
93
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Displacement situation in Haiti – Round 7’, IOM, June 2024.
94
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘WFP ramps up food assistance in Haiti as hunger reaches record highs’, World Food Programme, 11 April 2024.
95
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘UNICEF Executive Director Catherine Russell briefing to the United Nations Security Council on the humanitarian situation in Haiti, 22 April 2024’, ReliefWeb, 22 April 2024.
96
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti’s gangs inflict ‘extreme brutality’ as casualties rise – UN report’, Al Jazeera, 30 October 2024.
97
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; F. Robes and D. C. Adams, ‘Surge of Gang Violence in Haiti Leads U.N. Workers to Flee’, The New York Times, 25 November 2024; E. Moreno and H. Issac, ‘UN evacuates staff from Haiti as gangs deepen control over capital’, Reuters, 26 November 2024.
98
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Displacement in Haiti Reaches Record High as 1.4 Million People Flee Violence’, IOM, 15 October 2025.
99
‘Haiti president’s assassination: What we know so far’, BBC, 1 February 2023; C. Porter et al, ‘Hours After Haiti’s President Is Assassinated, 4 Suspects Are Killed and 2 Arrested’, The New York Times, 7 July 2021.
100
‘Haiti president’s assassination: What we know so far’, BBC, 1 February 2023; C. Porter et al, ‘Hours After Haiti’s President Is Assassinated, 4 Suspects Are Killed and 2 Arrested’, The New York Times, 7 July 2021.
101
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti ex-senator pleads guilty for role in president’s 2021 assassination’, Reuters, 11 October 2023; ‘Former US informant pleads guilty to plotting Haitian president’s killing’, The Guardian, 5 December 2023.
102
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; F. Robles and D. C. Adams, ‘Key Suspect in Assassination of Haiti’s President Is Arrested’, The New York Times, 19 October 2023; ‘Key suspect in assassination of Haitian president arrested – Los Angeles Times’, The LA Times, 20 October 2023; G. Baker, ‘Haiti arrests key suspect in President Jovenel Moise’s murder’, BBC, 20 October 2023.
103
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Ex-Haitian senator sentenced to life in prison over president’s assassination’, Reuters, 19 December 2023; O. LaBorde, ‘Former Haitian senator sentenced to life in US prison for role in president’s assassination’, CNN, 20 December 2023.
104
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Retired Colombian army officer gets life sentence in 2021 assassination of Haiti’s president’, El Pais, 27 October 2023; ‘Retired Colombian army officer sentenced in US over 2021 assassination of Haiti’s president’, Le Monde, 27 October 2023.
105
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; D. C. Adams and A. Paultre, ‘The Wife of Haiti’s Assassinated President Is Accused in His Killing’, The New York Times, 19 February 2024; V. Buschschulüter, ‘Martine Moïse: Wife of Haiti’s murdered president charged over his killing’, BBC, 20 February 2024; ‘Haiti President Moise’s widow, ex-PM among 50 charged in his assassination’, Al Jazeera, 20 February 2024.
106
S. Mistler-Ferguson, ‘G9 vs. G-PEP – The Two Gang Alliances Tearing Haiti Apart,’, InSight Crime, 21 July 2022.
107
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘“Living a Nightmare”: Haiti Needs an Urgent Rights-Based Response to Escalating Crisis’, Human Rights Watch, 14 August 2023; L. Taylor, ‘‘There’s no police or state’: Haitians helpless as violence and brutality soars’, The Guardian, 14 August 2023.
108
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; P. Appleby, ‘Haiti Crime Boss’ Death Signals Possible Shift in Balance of Power’, InSight Crime, 23 November 2023; ‘Haiti – Conflict: Gang Leader “Tyson”‚ victim of disciplinary execution within the «G9»’, Haiti Libre, 2 October 2023; M. F. Arocha et al, ‘Regional Overview: Latin America & the Caribbean – September 2023’, ACLED, 5 October 2023.
109
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; P. Appleby, ‘Haiti Crime Boss’ Death Signals Possible Shift in Balance of Power’, InSight Crime, 23 November 2023; R. Le Cour Grandmaison et al, ‘A Critical Moment: Haiti’s Gang Crisis and International Responses’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, February 2024.
110
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/253, 29 March 2024, para 28.
111
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Statement by the Interim Humanitarian Coordinator in Haiti on the recent violence in Port-au-Prince, 17 November 2023’, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 17 November 2023.
112
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Interim report of the Panel of Experts on Haiti submitted pursuant to resolution 2700 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/253, 29 March 2024, fn 13; S. Pellegrini, ‘Viv Ansanm: Living together, fighting united — the alliance reshaping Haiti’s gangland’, ACLED, 16 October 2024.
113
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘It’s estimated about 200 gangs operate in Haiti. This is what we know about the leader known as ‘Barbecue’’, ABC News, 13 March 2024; K. Almond, ‘Coming face to face with Haiti’s most notorious gang leader’, CNN, 5 March 2024; T. Phillips and L. Taylor, ‘Is the feared gang boss ‘Barbecue’ now the most powerful man in Haiti?’, The Guardian, 10 March 2024.
114
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘It’s estimated about 200 gangs operate in Haiti. This is what we know about the leader known as ‘Barbecue’’, ABC News, 13 March 2024; K. Almond, ‘Coming face to face with Haiti’s most notorious gang leader’, CNN, 5 March 2024; T. Phillips and L. Taylor, ‘Is the feared gang boss ‘Barbecue’ now the most powerful man in Haiti?’, The Guardian, 10 March 2024.
115
‘Guy Philippe’, InSight Crime, 12 September 2024; S. F. Santos, ‘Former rebel Guy Philippe calls for Haiti PM to resign’, BBC, 9 March 2024
116
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
117
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti’s capital paralysed by gunfire as gang boss threatens police chief and ministers’, The Guardian, 29 February 2024; E. Sanon, ‘Haitian police spokesman says new gang attacks across capital overwhelmed officers’, PBS, 1 March 2024.
118
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; G. Aradi and P. Fletcher, ‘Haiti crisis: Can Kenyan police officers defeat the gangs?’, BBC, 2 October 2023; L. C. Fuentes and M. F. Arocha, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: May 2024’, ACLED, 10 June 2024.
119
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. F. Arocha and J. Coenen, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: June 2024’, ACLED, 8 July 2024.
120
W. Grant et al, ‘Haiti’s prime minister Ariel Henry resigns as law and order collapses’, BBC, 12 March 2024; P. Beaumont and L. Taylor, ‘Haiti PM Ariel Henry resigns after gang insurrection caused days of chaos’, The Guardian, 12 March 2024; ‘Haiti’s interim Prime Minister Garry Conille forms new government’, Al Jazeera, 11 June 2024
121
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti gang leader calls for dialogue as Kenyan police patrol the streets’, Africa News, 13 August 2024; N. Kiage, ‘Barbecue offers ‘dialogue’ plea as Kenyan troops arrive to hunt Haiti gangs’, The East African, 26 June 2024.
122
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘“Drop your weapons and recognize the state’s authority”, Haiti’s PM tells gangs’, Africa News, 13 August 2024; ‘Haiti PM calls on gang members to disarm’, The New Humanitarian, 18 July 2024.
123
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haitian gang leader proposes to lay down arms and begin national dialogue’, EFE, 6 July 2024.
124
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
125
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
126
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
127
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. F. Arocha et al, ‘Latin America and the Caribbean Overview: November 2024’, ACLED, 9 December 2024.
128
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Quarterly Report on the Human Rights Situation in Haiti: April – June 2025’, UN Integrated Office in Haiti; ‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025.
129
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Quarterly Report on the Human Rights Situation in Haiti: April – June 2025’, United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti; ‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025.
130
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
131
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; B. Lindstrom, ‘With Haiti on the brink of collapse, a reckoning for US policy on Haiti’, Harvard Law School, 15 March 2024
132
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Protests erupt across Haiti as demonstrators demand that the prime minister resign’, AP News, 6 February 2024; V. Buschschlüter, ‘Haiti leader urges calm as protesters call for his resignation’, BBC, 8 February 2024; ‘Haiti: Five killed as protest against prime minister spreads’, DW, 8 February 2024
133
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. Bubalo and H. Khalil, ‘Haiti PM Ariel Henry resigns as transitional council is sworn in’, BBC, 25 April 2024; ‘Haiti Prime Minister Ariel Henry resigns, transitional council takes power’, Al Jazeera, 25 April 2024
134
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Locked in Transition: Politics and Violence in Haiti’, International Crisis Group, 19 February 2025; ‘Guterres welcomes creation of transitional council in Haiti to choose new leaders’, UN News, 13 April 2024; E. Sanon and D. Coto, ‘Transitional council in Haiti to choose new leaders is formally established amid gang violence’, PBS, 12 April 2024.
135
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti’s transitional council sworn in after PM Henry’s resignation’, Le Monde, 25 April 2024; ‘Haiti transitional government takes power as gangs hold capital ‘hostage’’, Reuters, 26 April 2024
136
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. J. Celestin, ‘Edgard Leblanc Designated President of the Presidential Transition Council by 4 of 7 Members’, Le Nouvelliste, 30 April 2024; ‘The announcement of a new prime minister divides Haiti’s transitional council’, NPR, 1 May 2024; J. Johnston and C. François, ‘Haiti News Round-Up 16: Transitional Presidential Council Is Sworn in, a President Is Selected, but Disagreements Ensue’, Center for Economic and Policy Research, 8 May 2024.
137
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti transitional council names Garry Conille PM’, DW, 29 May 2024; H. Isaac, ‘Haiti transition council taps former PM Conille to again lead country’, Reuters, 29 May 2024.
138
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise et al, ‘Garry Conille officially receives the decree appointing him Haiti’s Prime Minister’, The Haitian Times, 4 June 2024; ‘New Haitian prime minister sworn in’, RFI, 4 June 2024.
139
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
140
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Whitehead, ‘Haiti’s prime minister ousted after six months’, BBC, 11 November 2024; ‘Haiti’s transitional council to oust interim PM Conille’, DW, 11 November 2024; ‘Haiti appoints new prime minister as security crisis mounts’, The Guardian, 11 November 2024; ‘Haitian transitional presidential council appoints new prime minister’, Reuters, 11 November 2024.
141
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. Miller, ‘Designation of a New Prime Minister in Haiti’, US Department of State, 11 November 2024.
142
E. Sanon, ‘New leader takes over Haiti’s transitional presidential council marred by corruption allegations’, AP News, 7 October 2024; D. Coto, ‘Investigators in Haiti accuse three members of transitional presidential council of corruption’, AP News, 2 October 2024; ‘Haiti’s divided transition council picks new president’, Reuters, 8 October 2024; J. Charles, ‘‘The hour is grave’: Haiti’s presidential council has a new leader’, Miami Herald, 8 October 2024.
143
J. Charles, ‘‘The hour is grave’: Haiti’s presidential council has a new leader’, Miami Herald, 8 October 2024
144
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; A. J. Pierre, ‘Fritz Alphonse Jean becomes new president of Haiti’s Transitional Presidential Council’, The Haitian Time, 7 March 2025; S. Morland, ‘Haitian economist takes over as transition president in friendly ceremony’, Reuters, 7 March 2025.
145
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti: Protesters demand end of violence; Gang takes over community radio station’, Monitor: Tracking Civic Space, 25 September 2025; ‘Security Alert: Potential for Widespread Protests on Wednesday (April 16, 2025)’, US Embassy in Haiti, 15 April 2025.
146
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti: Protesters demand end of violence; Gang takes over community radio station’, Monitor: Tracking Civic Space, 25 September 2025.
147
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise and F. D. Octave, ‘Haiti’s Transitional Presidential Council faces major hurdles in installation process’, The Haitian Times, 6 April 2024.
148
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise, ‘Laurent Saint-Cyr assumes leadership of Haiti’s presidential council with familiar promises’, The Haitian Times, 9 August 2025.
149
‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025; J. Charles, ‘Haiti’s transitional leaders end controversial effort to rewrite 1987 constitution’, Miami Herald, 10 October 2025; ‘From Criminal Governance to Community Fragmentation: Addressing Haiti’s Escalating Crisis’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, September 2025; ‘Haiti’, Security Council Report, 31 March 2025.
150
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; H. Issac and R. T. Erol, ‘Haiti gang leader killed as transition council nears completion’, Reuters, 22 March 2024; ‘Prominent Haitian gang leader shot dead by police as political groups near finalisation of transition council’, Sky News, 22 March 2024.
151
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; C. S. Hu et al, ‘In a city cut off from the world, guns and drugs keep flowing’, CNN World, 15 May 2024; ‘Report of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime pursuant to paragraph 9 of Security Council resolution 2692 (2023)’, UN Doc S/2024/554, 16 July 2024, Figure V, Fn 14, and Annex I
152
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti – News : Zapping…’, Haiti Libre, 2 May 2024; ‘Haiti airport reopens after weeks of gang violence’, BBC, 21 May 2024; ‘United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2024/508, 27 June 2024, para 17.
153
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti to replace national police chief in effort to counter gang violence’, Al Jazeera, 15 July 2024; ‘Haiti – FLASH: Frantz Elbé DG of the PNH dismissed, replaced by a former dismissed DG!’, Haiti Libre, 15 June 2024; H. Isaac, ‘Gang-ravaged Haiti to replace national police head with former chief’, Reuters, 15 June 2024.
154
‘State of emergency declared in 14 municipalities; Second contingent of Kenyan officers arrived in Haiti; PNH deployed into gang-controlled areas’, Europe External Programme with Africa, 24 July 2024; ‘Haiti – FLASH: The Government declares a state of emergency, start of operations (video PM address to the Nation)’, Haiti Libre, 18 July 2024; ‘United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2024/742, 15 October 2024, para 20.
155
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2024/742, 15 October 2024, para 20; T. Bennett, ‘Haiti expands state of emergency to whole country’, BBC, 5 September 2024.
156
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti Report, September 9, 2024’, Haiti Response, 9 September 2024; ‘Haiti state of emergency expanded; prison protest leads to dozen casualties; 24 Jamaican officers preparing for deployment’, Europe External Programme with Africa, 11 September 2024
157
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti Report, September 3, 2024’, Haiti Response, 3 September 2024; B. Wilkinson, ‘Arrival of U.S. armored vehicles boost to Haiti anti-gang effort’, Amsterdam News, 5 September 2024.
158
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti Report, September 9, 2024’, Haiti Response, 9 September 2024.
159
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise and O. Joseph, ‘Families in Haiti’s Petite-Rivière de l’Artibonite report climbing death toll following brutal attack’, The Haitian Times, 11 December 2024; ‘Intensification of Criminal Violence in Lower Artibonite, the Centre Department, and Regions Located East of the Metropolitan Area of Port-Au-Prince: Major risk for Haiti and the Caribbean subregion’, BINUH, July 2025, 9.
160
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti – News: Zapping…’, Haiti Libre, 2 January 2025; ‘Haiti Report, January 3, 2025’, Haiti Response, 3 January 2025.
161
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Gangs attack neighborhood in Haiti that’s home to country’s elite’, Voice of America, 3 February 2025; ‘Haiti Report, February 11, 2025’, Haiti Response, 11 February 2025.
162
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Charles and F. Fils-Aimé, ‘‘They are throwing live babies into the flames’: Victims of Haiti gang attack plead for help’, Miami Herald, 25 February 2025; ‘Today’s top news: Occupied Palestinian Territory, Haiti, Ukraine’, OCHA, 20 February 2025.
163
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Charles, ‘As Haiti teeters on brink of a violent collapse, group warns against elections this year’, Miami Herald, 19 February 2025.
164
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Assessment of progress achieved on the key benchmarks pursuant to paragraph 14 of resolution 2752 (2024): Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2025/588, 18 September 2025, para 16; ‘United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2025/418, 27 June 2025, para 20; ‘Haiti: Protection Analysis Update’, Global Protection Cluster, September 2025, 4.
165
‘Assessment of progress achieved on the key benchmarks pursuant to paragraph 14 of resolution 2752 (2024): Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2025/588, 18 September 2025, para 16; ‘Haiti: Protection Analysis Update’, Global Protection Cluster, September 2025, 4.
166
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; K. Ives, ‘Government Drone Attack on Delmas 6 Neighborhood Kills Two, Wounds 14’, Haïti Liberté, 5 March 2025.
167
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
168
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti: Protection Analysis Update’, Global Protection Cluster, September 2025, 4.
169
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; K. Guilbert, ‘Haiti police vow to ramp up fight against gangs after fresh attacks in the capital’, Euro News, 13 March 2025; E. Sanon, ‘Gangs unleash new attack on Haiti’s capital as police vow to hold them back’, AP News, 12 March 2025; J. Blaise, ‘Gangs tighten grip on Mirebalais after deadly raid frees 500 inmates, forcing residents to flee’, The Haitian Times, 1 April 2025.
170
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
171
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; N. Forsans, ‘Haiti is enlisting the help of mercenaries in its battle against gang violence’, The Conversation, 6 October 2025; W. Kemp and R. Le Cour Grandmaison, ‘Guns for hire: Should private military companies take on organized crime?’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 8 September 2025.
172
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Grogne populaire: Fritz A. Jean promet sécurité et élections avant février 2025’, Gazette Haiti, 3 April 2025; J. Charles, ‘‘We are at war’: Why Haiti’s leaders are turning to a rogue brigade to help fight gangs’, Miami Herald, 3 April 2025; ‘Vers le jumelage de la BSAP avec les forces de l’ordre’, Vant Bèf Info, 3 April 2025.
173
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; N. Forsans, ‘Haiti is enlisting the help of mercenaries in its battle against gang violence’, The Conversation, 6 October 2025; W. Kemp and R. Le Cour Grandmaison, ‘Guns for hire: Should private military companies take on organized crime?’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 8 September 2025; R. Bunker et al, ‘Third Generation Gangs Strategic Note No. 58: Contracting of Former PMC Blackwater Founder Erik Prince by the Haitian Government for Port-au-Prince Intervention’, Small Wars Journal, 18 June 2025.
174
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; N. Forsans, ‘Haiti is enlisting the help of mercenaries in its battle against gang violence’, The Conversation, 6 October 2025; ‘Haiti: Human rights group warns of risks as Vectus Global deploys private military force under 10-year contract’, Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, 14 August 2025.
175
‘Haiti: Human rights group warns of risks as Vectus Global deploys private military force under 10-year contract’, Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, 14 August 2025; A. Hirtenstein et al, ‘Exclusive: Trump ally Erik Prince plans to keep personnel in Haiti for 10 years to fight gangs and collect taxes’, Reuters, 14 August 2025.
176
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Charles, ‘Haiti’s presidential council confirms use of mercenaries in anti-gang fight’, Miami Herald, 21 June 2025; J. Odigène, ‘Garry Jean Baptiste: Fritz Jean Can Lead the Country Thanks to PNH’s Continued Operations’, Le Nouvelliste, 24 June 2025.
177
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
178
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; O. Chéry, ‘Cap-Haïtien police arrest wanted Port-au-Prince gang leader Tapè’, The Haitian Times, 14 May 2025; ‘Haiti – Security: Review of operations carried out by the PNH (video)’, Haiti Libre, 28 May 2025
179
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
180
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; F. Robles, ‘Haiti is Using Drones to Fight Gangs. Here’s Why That’s Likely Illegal’, The New York Times, 17 June 2025; ‘Drone warfare is hitting Haiti’, The Economist, 19 June 2025; H. Shuldiner, ‘Drone Strikes Shake Haiti’s Gangs but Leave Legal and Strategic Questions’, InSight Crime, 24 June 2025.
181
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group
182
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise and O. Joseph, ‘Haitian police and MSS forces retake Kenscoff base near vital aviation facility’, The Haitian Times, 26 August 2025.
183
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Deadly Haiti drone attack kills eight children in capital Port-au-Prince’, Al Jazeera, 23 September 2025; ‘Ten children killed in ten days in Port-au-Prince: Statement by UNICEF Representative in Haiti, Geeta Narayan’, UNICEF, 24 September 2025; ‘Haiti: at least eight children among 13 killed in drone attack on birthday party’, The Guardian, 23 September 2025.
184
‘Haiti: Escalating Violence Puts Population at Grave Risk’, Human Rights Watch, 17 April 2025; J. Legrand and L. Duquereste, ‘Some Self-Defense Groups Are Spiraling Out of Control in Haiti’, Ayibopost, 16 June 2025; W. Mérancourt and A. Coletta, ‘Vigilantes once fought Haiti’s gangs. Now it’s hard to tell them apart’, The Washington Post, 6 July 2025.
185
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2023/492, 3 July 2023, para 33.
186
H. Shuldiner, ‘Haiti’s Anti-Gang Vigilantes May Pose Future Criminal Threat’, InSight Crime, 9 May 2023.
187
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
188
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
189
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
190
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Flécher, ‘Haiti announces a new Provisional Electoral Council’, The Haitian Times, 20 September 2024; D. Coto, ‘Haiti forms provisional electoral council to prepare for its first elections since 2016’, PBS, 18 September 2024; K. Madry and H. Issac, ‘Haiti creates council tasked with holding first elections in a decade’, Reuters, 19 September 2024; ‘Haiti sets up council to prepare for first elections since 2016’, Al Jazeera, 19 September 2024.
191
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise, ‘Haiti’s Provisional Electoral Council finally complete after contentious process’, The Haitian Times, 14 December 2024; ‘Elections: The CEP is now complete with 44% women (list)’, Haiti Libre, 14 December 2024.
192
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; S. Morland, ‘Haiti leader says long-awaited general elections penned for November’, Reuters, 29 January 2025; C. Frilet and JM. Hauteville, ‘Haiti’s transitional president Leslie Voltaire announces November 2025 elections’, Le Monde, 31 January 2025.
193
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc S/2025/226, 14 April 2025, para 4
194
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Communique – 48th Regular Meeting Of Conference Of CARICOM Heads of Government’, Barbados Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade, 28 February 2025.
195
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
196
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group
197
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. J. Celestin, ‘Ex-Prime Ministers Caution Against Potential Political Crisis on February 7, 2026’, Le Nouvelliste, 10 September 2025.
198
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
199
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise, ‘US pressures Haiti transitional government to organize elections’, The Haitian Times, 7 October 2025; ‘Time to ‘Turn the Tide of Violence’, Special Representative for Haiti Tells Security Council, amid Calls for Dialogue, Unity in Tackling Gang Violence’, UN Press release, 22 October 2025; J. Blaise, ‘US pressures Haiti transitional government to organize elections’, Canada Caribbean Institute, 7 October 2025.
200
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; E. Sanon and PR. Luxama, ‘The death toll in a gang attack on a Haitian town rises to at least 115’, AP News, 10 October 2024; ‘Will the Artibonite massacre be a turning point in Haiti?’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 9 October 2024; ‘Haïti – Suivi des Urgences 49 – Déplacements suite aux attaques armées dans la commune de Saint Marc (03 – 04 octobre 2024)’, IOM, 4 October 2024.
201
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Will the Artibonite massacre be a turning point in Haiti?’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 9 October 2024; S. Pellegrini, ‘Pont-Sondé massacre marks a surge in Gran Grif’s deadly campaign in Artibonite, ACLED Insight’, ACLED, 11 October 2024; R. Corp, ‘Children among 70 killed in Haiti gang ‘massacre’’, BBC, 4 October 2024.
202
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Will the Artibonite massacre be a turning point in Haiti?’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 9 October 2024; ‘Haïti – Suivi des Urgences 49 – Déplacements suite aux attaques armées dans la commune de Saint Marc (03 – 04 octobre 2024)’, IOM, 4 October 2024; ‘‘They tried to murder everyone’: Haiti reels after deadly gang attack’, Al Jazeera, 7 October 2024; E. Sanon and PR. Luxama, ‘The death toll in a gang attack on a Haitian town rises to at least 115’, AP News, 10 October 2024.
203
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Will the Artibonite massacre be a turning point in Haiti?’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 9 October 2024; ‘Security Council 2653 Sanctions Committee Adds 2 Entries to Its Sanctions List’, UN Press release, 27 September 2024
204
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; S. Pellegrini, ‘Pont-Sondé massacre marks a surge in Gran Grif’s deadly campaign in Artibonite, ACLED Insight’, ACLED, 11 October 2024; ‘Massacre at Pont-Sondé: National Human Rights Defense Network (RNDDH) Demands Immediate Protection of the Population from State Authorities’, National Human Rights Defense Network, 4 October 2024.
205
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Will the Artibonite massacre be a turning point in Haiti?’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 9 October 2024; ‘Massacre de Pont-Sondé: le bilan s’alourdit’, Le Nouvelliste, J.J. Celestin, 4 October 2024.
206
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti – Wharf Jérémie massacre (10 December 2024)’, Ministère de L’Europe et des Affaires Étrangèrses, 10 December 2024; S. Pellegrini, ‘December 6 & 7 massacre in Wharf Jérémie, Haiti – Expert Comment’, ACLED, 9 December 2024; ‘Over 207 executed in Port-au-Prince massacre: UN report’, UN News, 23 December 2024.
207
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti – Wharf Jérémie massacre (10 December 2024)’, Ministère de L’Europe et des Affaires Étrangères, 10 December 2024; S. Pellegrini, ‘December 6 & 7 massacre in Wharf Jérémie, Haiti – Expert Comment’, ACLED, 9 December 2024; ‘Over 207 executed in Port-au-Prince massacre: UN report’, UN News, 23 December 2024.
208
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Over 207 executed in Port-au-Prince massacre: UN report’, UN News, 23 December 2024.
209
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haitian leader supports creating UN-led mission to quell country’s gang violence’, UN News, 26 September 2024; ‘Haiti: Vote to Renew the Authorisation of the Multinational Security Support Mission’, Security Council Report, 29 September 2024
210
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti – Politic: Leslie Voltaire calls for the return of UN peacekeepers’, Haiti Libre, 24 October 2024; ‘Leslie Voltaire Officially Calls for UN Peacekeepers Mission in Haiti’, Le Nouvelliste, J.D. Sénat, 23 October 2024; J. Charles, ‘Haiti asks for UN peacekeeping mission as gangs’ expansion worries leadership council’, Miami Herald, 22 October 2024.
211
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Blaise et al, ‘Russia, China block UN mission for Haiti amid rising gang violence’, The Haitian Times, 21 November 2024; S. Morland, ‘UN mulls Haiti peacekeeping force as gangs ramp up warfare’, Reuters, 21 November 2024; E. M. Lederer, ‘Russia and China oppose changing the Kenya-led force in Haiti to a UN peacekeeping mission’, AP News, 21 November 2024.
212
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Letter dated 24 February 2025 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council’, UN Doc S/2025/122, 27 February 2025; ‘Haiti’, Security Council Report, 1 March 2025.
213
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti’ Security Council Report, 29 August 2025; ‘Remarks at a UN Security Council Briefing on Haiti’, United States Mission to the United Nations, 28 August 2025
214
‘UN Security Council Resolution 2793, adopted on 30 September 2025 by twelve votes to nil with three abstentions (China, Pakistan, and Russia), operative para 1. Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; V. Mishra, ‘UN Security Council approves new ‘suppression force’ for Haiti amid spiralling gang violence’, UN News, 30 September 2025; ‘Haiti: new ‘suppression force’ for Haiti amid gang violence’, United Nations Delegate, 3 October 2025.
215
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; V. Mishra, ‘UN Security Council approves new ‘suppression force’ for Haiti amid spiralling gang violence’, UN News, 30 September 2025; ‘Haiti: new ‘suppression force’ for Haiti amid gang violence’, United Nations Delegate, 3 October 2025.
216
V. Mishra, ‘UN Security Council approves new ‘suppression force’ for Haiti amid spiralling gang violence’, UN News, 30 September 2025; ‘Haiti: new ‘suppression force’ for Haiti amid gang violence’, United Nations Delegate, 3 October 2025; D. Dickinson, ‘Fighting back against the gangs: What is Haiti’s new UN-backed force?’, UN News, 1 October 2025.
217
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; D. Dickinson, ‘Fighting back against the gangs: What is Haiti’s new UN-backed force?’, UN News, 1 October 2025.
218
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti – FLASH : The United States has delivered 20 new armored vehicles to Haiti’, Haiti Libre, 8 October 2025; T. Cerullo, ‘US Govt Delivers 20 New Armoured Vehicles to Boost Anti-Gang Operations in Haiti’, Kenyans.co.ke, 8 October 2025; J. Clark, ‘US delivers armored vehicles to Haiti’s new Gang Suppression Force’, Caribbean National Weekly, 12 October 2025.
219
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti calls for urgent regional gang-fighting support as US shies off funding’, Daily Maverick, 23 May 2025; ‘Haiti blackout ends after security promises; Gang leader Joly convicted in U.S.; Questions rise over new draft Constitution’, Europe External Programme with Africa, 28 May 2025; J. Daniels et al, ‘US explores Latin American troop deployment to Haiti to fight gangs’, Financial Times, 14 May 2025.
220
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; J. Charles, ‘Rubio: U.S. will not punish humanitarian-aid groups in Haiti forced to pay gang tolls’, Miami Herald, 21 May 2025; ‘Rubio Acknowledges Kenya-Led Mission Is Failing in Haiti, Urges OAS to Take the Lead’, Le Floridien, 21 May 2025.
221
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group.
222
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘U.S. Remarks: OAS Haiti Road Map – Permanent Council’, US Mission to the Organization of American States, 20 August 2025.
223
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. Rubio, ‘Terrorist Designations of Viv Ansanm and Gran Grif’, US Department of State, 2 May 2025.
224
M. Rubio, ‘Terrorist Designations of Viv Ansanm and Gran Grif’, US Department of State, 2 May 2025.
225
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘Haiti Report, May 26, 2025’, Haiti Response, 25 May 2025.
226
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘ICE arrests Haitian engaged in violence and destabilization of Haiti, in support of Department of State’, US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 21 July 2025.
227
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; M. Matza and W. Grant, ‘US announces criminal charges against Haitian gang leader Barbecue’, BBC, 12 August 2025; ‘Haitian Gang Leader ‘Barbecue’ Indicted for Conspiracy to Violate U.S. Sanctions’, US Department of Justice, 12 August 2025.
228
‘Latin America & Caribbean: Haiti’, International Crisis Group; ‘ICE arrests illegal alien from Haiti connected to criminal terrorist organizations’, US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 25 September 2025; ‘US seeks to deport second prominent Haitian businessman’, Reuters, 25 September 2025; D. Coto, ‘ICE agents arrest one of Haiti’s most powerful and wealthy businessmen on US soil’, AP News, 24 September 2025.

Haiti

Reporting period: July 2023 - June 2025

Overview

Historical background

Key developments (between July 2023 and June 2025)