Historical Background
Anglophone Grievances and Ambazonian Separatism
Following independence and the consolidation of English and French speaking territories, the Government of Cameroon privileged French as the national language and progressively replaced English legal institutions with French ones in traditionally Anglophone areas. Anglophone communities, representing a minority of the population and describing persistent marginalization by a Francophone political establishment, mobilized in protests from 2016, with violence emerging after a prolonged period of unrest. On 1 October 2017, Ambazonian separatist groups declared the independence of the Northwest and Southwest regions as Ambazonia. Hostilities between State forces and separatist armed groups escalated in late 2017, and the resulting non international armed conflict (NIAC) continued throughout the reporting period.
Regional Jihadist Spillover and Multinational Joint Task Force
Cameroon’s position in the Gulf of Guinea and its borders with conflict-affected neighbours exposed it to regional jihadist dynamics. Violence linked to Boko Haram and the Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP) expanded from Chad and Nigeria into Cameroonian territory, underpinning a decade-long NIAC between Cameroon and Boko Haram. The African Union (AU) Peace and Security Council reactivated the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) in January 2025, composed of forces from several regional States, and it has remained active in Cameroon.
Displacement Pressures
Cameroon’s proximity to the Central African Republic contributed to refugee influx, while the two NIACs in Cameroon were linked to severe internal displacement and limited international attention.
Key Developments (2023–2025)
During the reporting period, the situation saw several major developments:
- Renewal of the mandate of the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF)
In January 2025, AU reiterated concern about Boko Haram activity and renewed the MNJTF mandate for a further year from early 2025, reaffirming that the regional collective response needs sustained, well-coordinated and multipronged engagement. External partners also signalled continued support for operations against Boko Haram.
- Operation Ghost Town
Ambazonian separatists continued to use so called ghost town lockdowns to disrupt economic life, schooling, and basic services as a means of demonstrating influence. These restrictions further constrained humanitarian access.
- Ambazonia Defence Force spokesperson marked as traitor
A former spokesperson and prominent Ambazonia Defence Force (ADF) figure publicly rejected armed struggle, formed the Ambazonia People’s Rights Advocacy group and called on fighters to cease hostilities. The ADF denounced him as a traitor and portrayed his shift as enabling collaboration with the government.
- Intercommunal violence
Intercommunal violence persisted, particularly in the far north, driven by competition over grazing land and water and exacerbated by climate-related scarcity, alongside ethnic and religious tensions. Clashes have included a mid-2023 confrontation that displaced thousands, and episodes of xenophobic violence in the South that prompted local reconciliation efforts.
- Humanitarian crisis
Humanitarian needs remained high due to the combined effects of armed conflicts, major flooding and landslides. Severe floods and landslide events in 2024 affected large parts of the population and were followed by outbreaks of cholera and other health emergencies in 2025.
- The 2025 presidential elections
The removal of presidential term limit enabled President Paul Biya to run for an eight term amid allegations of fraud and intimidation, restrictions affecting opposition figures and contested candidacies. Biya’s declared victory following the October 2025 election triggered protests, which were met with force, deaths, arrests and a temporary lockdown.
Non-International Armed Conflicts
Cameroon VS Ambazonian Separatists
The NIAC between Cameroon and Ambazonian separatists began in September and October 2017 in the Northwest and Southwest regions and involves multiple armed groups pursuing an independent Ambazonia, including the Ambazonia Defence Force, the Restoration Forces, the Bui Warriors, the Bui Unity Warriors and the Southern Cameroons Defence Forces. Fragmentation and intermittent infighting stem from competition over resources and ideological differences, complicating attribution of incidents to specific actors, while allowing an aggregated assessment of the violence directed against their common enemy – Cameroonian armed forces. The pattern of sustained clashes, ambushes, abductions and extensive use of improvised explosive devices (IED), including a sharp increase in such attacks in 2025, demonstrates protracted armed violence, with high reported fatalities and large-scale internal displacement. Therefore, the intensity threshold required under IHL is met throughout the reporting period. Several groups also exhibit sufficient organization through tiered leadership, internal discipline, coordinated communications, fundraising and taxation practices, and the demonstrated capacity to plan and carry out military operations, including attacks lasting several hours. These elements support the continued classification of the situation as a NIAC.
Cameroon vs Boko Haram
Boko Haram has operated in northern Cameroon since at least 2009 or 2011, and the first armed confrontation with the Cameroonian armed forces on Cameroonian territory was recorded in March 2014. The fighting has continued, with Cameroon supported by the MNJTF. During the period under review, violent incidents and recurring clashes remained frequent and sustained, with repeated civilian casualties, evidencing protracted armed violence. Hostilities have involved assault rifles and heavy machine guns, ambushes and night raids on bases to seize military-grade equipment, extensive use of IEDs including car bombs, and reported adoption of drone technology to drop improvised munitions. Boko Haram has retained an identifiable leadership, specialized officials, a de facto religious council, military and civilian wings, territorial command arrangements and regional commanders overseeing militia-style units and enclaves. The group has generated income through taxation, pillage and ransom, and displayed recruitment and training practices, as well as the capability to implement IHL. The intensity and organization thresholds therefore remain met, and the NIAC persists.
Parties to the Conflict
State Parties
- Cameroon (supported by )
Non-State Parties
- Boko Haram
Ambazonian separatists
Other Main Actors:
- Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP)